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Cosmic Ray investigat ion in stratosphere and space: some results from instruments on Russian satellites and balloons.
Yu. I. Lo gac he v (1 ), L. L. La zut in (1 ) a nd K. Kude la (2) 1 Skobelts yn I nst it ute o f N uc lea r P hys ic s, Mosco w Sta te Univers it y, Moscow, Rus s ia. 2 Inst it ute o f Exper ime nt a l P hys ics, S lo vak Acade my o f Sc ie nces, Wa tso no va 47, 04001 Kosice, S lo vak ia (I EP SAS ) Abst ract . Selected ac t ivit ie s wit h t he a im to desc r ibe cos mic ra y fluxe s and to contr ib ute the unde rst a nd ing o f t he mec ha nis ms be hind, ov er lo ng t ime pe r iod wit h us ing t he space researc h too ls in t he fo r mer USS R a nd in Rus s ia, are re vie wed, a nd so me o f t he res ults obta ined a re listed. Se lec t io n is co nnec ted wit h t he inst it ut es whe re t he a ut hor s are work ing. Thus it ha s to be a ss umed a s a par t ia l re view o n t he wide top ic.

1. Som e mil estones until mi d of the l ast century.
Inve st igat io n o f cos mic r a ys be ga n in 1900 - 1901, i.e. more t ha n 100 years a go. F irs t te n yea rs t he rese rc hers d id no t k now t he y st ud y cos mic ra ys. All be ga n fro m t he t i me o f meas ure me nt s o f co nd uct ivit y o f var io us gases inc lud ing t he a ir, whe n t here was obser ved so me "res id ua l" io nizat io n, i.e. a weak "dark c urre nt " obse r ved e ve n wit ho ut io nis ing so urces. F irs t p ub lica t io ns o f t hose e xper ime nt s re lat e to per iod 1900 - 1901 [1]. One o f t he firs t re searc he rs o f "dark c urre nt " was C h. W ilso n, we ll k no wn as t he inve ntor of W ilso n c ha mber (1912), whic h wa s wide ly used for s t ud ie s o f var io us t ype s o f rad iat io n, inc lud ing a lso cos mic ra ys. Late r, in 1927, Ch. W ilso n for t his find i ng was awarded t he Nobe l Pr ize. Due to t hose e xper ime nt s it beca me c lea r t ha t a t sea le ve l a lwa ys e xists so me not la r ge b ut s tro ngly pe net rat ing rad ia t io n (t ha t was ob ser ved a lso in stro ngly sc ree ned c ha mb ers). At t he be ginning it was t ho ught t hat t he r ad ia t io n is e ma nat ing fro m t he so il, s imila r ly to Eart h's rad ioa ct ivit y, a nd t hat is why it mus t be dec lining abo ve t he Ear t h's s ur fa ce. Ho we ve r, t he rad ia t io n wa s dec lining j us t up to t he a lt it ude abo ut o ne k m while abo ve t his le ve l its inte ns it y wa s inc reas ing The fa ct t hat rad iat io n int e ns it y increa ses wit h a lt it ude was k no wn in 1912 a fter e xpe r ime nts o f Aust r ia n p hys ic is ts V. He ss [2], who mea s ured rad iat io n by io nizat io n c ha mbe r up to mo re t ha n 5 k m. V. Hes s ca lled it "a lt it ude rad ia t io n". This na me wa s used unt il 1925. The nat ure o f t hat rad ia t io n was not c la r ified for lo ng t ime. The re we re proposed se ve ra l hypot heses o f it s or igin (e. g. it is or igina ted in t he uppe r la yer s of t he at mosp he re due to at mosp he r ic e lec tr ic it y). F ina lly, t he e xtra terr est r ia l or igin o f "a lt it ud e rad iat io n" was proved b y R.A. M illik a n (US A) in 1923 - 1924, who introd uc ed t he te r m "co s mic ra ys " [3]. At t hat t ime R. A. M il lika n was a lre ad y awa rded t he Nobe l Pr ize ( in 1923 he was awarded t he Nobe l Pr ize for meas ure me nt o f t he c ha r ge o f e lectr o n). Cos mic ra ys re ma ined o ver r at her lo ng t ime per iod t he "myst er y e ffect ". This is ar gued b y t he fact t hat Nobel P r ize for its d isco ver y was a warded to V. Hess o nly in 1932, i.e. 20 yea rs a fter his expe r ime nts.


In t his s hort re view t he re a re d isc ussed fe w se lec ted mi lesto nes in t he cos mic ra y researc h, to whic h a ut hors o f t he pape r a mo ng ma ny ot her sc ie nt ist s o f t he for mer USSR and C zec hos lo vak ia co ntr ib uted. In 1926 p hys ic ists in Le ningrad L.M. M yso vsk ij a nd L. Tuwim fo und t hat inte ns i t y o f cos mic ra ys is c ha nging wit h t he p ress ure o f a ir. The y d isco vered ba ro me tr ic e ffec t o f cos mic r a ys whic h is we ll k no wn at pre se nt [4 ]. D.V. Skobe lts yn in 1927 d ur ing t he works wit h t he W ilso n c ha mber p ut into t he ma gne t ic fie ld, fo und t hat cos mic ra ys at t he sea le ve l are e lect r ica lly c ha r ged par t ic les o f ver y high e ner gy [5 ]. Scie nt ists in t he fo r me r USSR be ga n to pers ue inte ns ive ly wit h cos mic ra y resea rc h , star t ing fro m 1920- es. Let us me nt io n t he wo rks o f se vera l gro ups in Le ningrad, Kharko v a nd Mos cow. The bas ic s uccesse s of t he gro ups are re s ult s of L.N . M yso vsk ij and co llea gues, D. V. Skobe lts yn and of t he gro up of S.N. Ver no v. The work in for mer USSR was a ligned wit h t he sa me sc ie nt ific d irec t io ns as in t he ot her co unt r ies o f t he wor ld, ho we ve r wit h so me de la y d ue to t he te ns io ned inter na t io na l a nd do mest ic s it ua t io n as we ll as wit h t he co mp licated e xc ha nge o f info r ma t io n d ur ing t ha t t ime s. Unt il t he works o f L.M. M yso vsk ij t he predo mina nt op inio n wa s t hat t he a lt it ude rad iat io n is c lose to t he rad iat io n o f rad ioact ive nuc le i. L.V. M yso vsk ij a nd his co llea gues acco mp lis hed in 1925 at t he Lake O ne ga t he mea s ure me nts o f absorp t io n coe ffic ie nt o f a lt it ude rad ia t io n in t he wate r [6], whic h appeared to be b y o ne o rder lowe r t ha n t hat for ga mma ra ys o f Ra, whic h ind icated t hat t he a lt it ude rad iat io n posses ses muc h highe r pe netr at io n ab il it y t ha n ga mma ra ys e mitted b y rad ioact ive nuc le i. The se work s a lo ng wit h t he exp er ime nt s by R.A. M illika n a nd G. H. Ca mero n [7] o n t he absorp t io n o f a lt it ude rad iat io n in t he wa ter at va r io us le ve ls abo ve t he sea o ne led to t he co nc lus io n t ha t t he a lt it ud e rad ia t io n is co ming to t he gro und fro m abo ve a nd t ha t it has ve r y high pe ne tra t io n ab ilit y. In 1927 D. V. Skobe lt s yn fo und in W ilso n cha mber insert ed in t he ma gne t ic fie ld not numero us track s o f r e la t ivist ic par t ic les no t be nt b y t he ma gne t ic fie ld. He dete r mined t he ene r gy o f pa rt ic les a nd ca me to t he co nc lus io n t ha t t hes e are pa rt ic le s o f a lt it ude rad ia t io n [5], whic h accord ing to R. A. M ill ika n obta ined t he na me "co s mic ra ys " [8]. In 1929 D.V. Skobe lts yn p ub lis hed his pape r, whe re he s howed t hat cos mic ra ys (CR) ma y crea te se ve ra l part ic les, t he s howe rs o f cos mic ra ys [9 ]. Afte r se ver a l yea rs wit h he lp of W ilso n c ha mber, co nt ro lled b y t he s yst e m o f co inc ide nce fro m t he detec tors surro und ing t he c ha mber, va r io us resea rc her s obta ined t he p hotos o f t he cos mic ra y sho wers wit h high number o f pa rt ic les ( see e. g. [10 ]). The impo rta nce o f d isco ver y o f cos mic ra y s ho wer s is in t he a ware ne ss o f t he fac t o f t he proces ses in cos mic ra ys whic h do no t e xist in t he inte ract io ns o f par t ic les wit h lowe r e ne r gies. Cos mic ra ys a llowed to ge t in deeper into e le me ntar y par t ic le s tr uc t ure a nd init iated de ve lop me nt o f acce lera t io n tec hniq ue. Third gro up o f cos mic ra y resea rc hers es tab lis hed a nd lead b y S.N. Ver no v. Espec ia lly that gro up, in t he fo llowing per iod, carr ied o ut mos t e xha us t ive a nd misc e lla neo us cos mic ray rese arc h in USS R: o n t he gro und, a t mo unta in a lt it udes, in t he st ratosp here, a nd subs eq ue nt ly o n sa te llit es a nd o t her space ve hic le s. These invest igat io ns a re s hor t ly descr ibed be low. We sho uld like to s a y fe w word s abo ut t he leade r o f t he work s o f t he gro up ­ Ser ge y Niko lae vic h Ve r no v (SNV, 1916- 1982), who star ted his co s mic ra y st ud ies ver y yo ung, at t he a ge j us t abo ve 20. SNV was a st ude nt o f D.V. Skobe lt s yn. He was fa mil iar wit h t he works a nd res ults o f p hys ic is ts in Le ningrad, a nd he ha s see n ho w d ist inguis hed sc ie nt ists


dea l wit h cos mic r a y phys ics, a nd t hus his c hoo se o f cos mic r a y phys ics was r ight ful. I n the first ha lf o f 1930- es t he y we re k nown o nly t he hypo t heses abo ut t he p r imar y cos mic rays (part ic les access ing t he Ea rt h' s at mosp he re fro m o uter space). Thus, for under sta nd ing t he nat ur e o f cos mic ra ys, it was necessa r y to co nd uct t he e xpe r ime nts c loser to its so urc e, nea r t he bo undar y o f t he at mosp her e. Tha t is why SNV dec ided to carr y o ut t he mea s ure me nts in t he uppe r st ratosp here. Howe ve r, o n t his wa y t here was a ser io us d iffic ult y beca use at t ha t t ime t he e xper ime nters had no po ss ib il it y to a r ise wit h the ins tr ume nt to high a lt it ude. Tha t is why t he e xper ime nta l de vice s wit h a uto ma t ic record ing s yste m ha ve bee n de ve loped a nd meas ure me nt s pro vided wit ho ut t he peop le. Resea rc h o f s trato sp here wa s pro vided a lso b y o t her resea rc her s a nd t he flights o f stra tosta ts be ga n. Near Mo scow on Septe mber 30, 1933 t he s tra tosta t wit h t he na me "SSSR- 1 " was la unc hed a nd reac hed 19 km. S tra to na uts wit h he lp o f e lec tro mete rs o f Hess a nd Kohlhoes ter meas ur ed cos mic ra y inte ns it y a nd co nfir med t he data abo ut cos mic (e xtra terre str ia l) o r igin o f t he ra ys a nd abo ut t he ro le o f at mosp her e in t he ir scree ning. O ne o f t he flight s o f s trat osta ts finis hed b y a tra ge d y ­ t hree str ato na uts d ied. S.N. Ver no v fo und a so lut io n o f t ha t prob le m ­ to tra ns late t he res ults o f mea s ure me nts by rad io wa ves. He ut il ized t he e xper ie nce o f Le ningrad' s pro fesso r P.A. Mo lc ha no v, who in 1930 for t he firs t t ime in t he wor ld constr ucted t he rad ioso nde tra ns la t ing t he meteoro lo gic a l info r ma t io n b y rad io. SNV jo int ly wit h P.A. Mo lc ha no v and L.V. Myso vsk y in 1934 is de ve lop ing t he inst r ume nt and for t he firs t t ime cos mic ra y meas ure me nt s in the at mosp he re are tra ns mitted to Ear t h by rad io. I n t he Report o f Acade my o f Sc ie nc es o f USSR for t he yea r 1934 the re is wr it te n t hat "e xpe r ie nce wit h detect io n o f cos mic ra ys was p ro vided b y t he P hD st ude nt o f Rad io I nst it ut e S.N. Ver no v". F ir st a uto mat ica lly adj us t ing flight o f r ad ioso nde took p lace o n Apr il 1, 1935 [11]. I n t he s a me year S.N. Ve r no v de fe nded his P hD t hes is o n s ub jec t "I nves t iga t io n o f cos mic ra ys in t he st ratosp here b y mea ns o f rad ioso ndes ". Acad e mic ia n S. I. Va vilo v liked t he t hes is b y S.N. Ver no v a nd he invit ed him to doc tora l st ud y to F IAN (P hys ica l Inst it ute o f Acade my o f Sc ie nces ) for co nt inuat io n his res earc h o f cos mic ra ys. This was the ter mina t io n o f t he re searc h b y S.N. Ve r no v in Le ningrad. S ince 1935 he mo ved to Moscow where he worked co nt inuo us ly unt il his dea t h. I mpro ving t he met hod o f mea s ure me nt o f cos mic r a ys o n t he st ratosp her ic b a llo ns, S.N. Ver no v co nd uc ted s uccess ful s t ud y o f t he lat it ud ina l e ffec t o f cos mic ra ys in t he stra tosp here in 1936- 1938 at se ve ra l s ite s : Le ningrad, Ye re va n a nd in t he re gio n o f equa tor [12]. For t hat p urpo se S.N. Ver no v or ga nized a nd lead t he na ut ica l e xped it io n. Ta nker na med "Se gro Ord zho nik id ze " sa iled fro m Odessa to Vlad ivos tok a nd back ward and in in I nd ia n ocea n fro m t he boa rd t he re we re flo wn t he stra tosp he r ic ba lloo ns. Exper ime nts in stra tosp he re ha ve s ho wn t hat t he flux o f cos mic ra ys near eq uato r is b y 4 times lo wer t ha n a t high lat it udes. I t was t he ind ic a t io n t ha t ma gne t ic fie ld o f Ea rt h dec lines cos mic ra ys a nd, co ns eq ue nt ly cos mic ra ys co ns ists o f c har ged part ic les. S imi lar expe r ime nts we re do ne s light ly ear lie r b y R. A. M il lika n [13], whic h de finit e ly pro ved that cos mic ra ys are not ne utra l p art ic le s a s e. g. ga mma q ua nta. Ho we ver, for t he deter minat io n o f co s mic ra y co mpos it io n s t ill re ma ined se ve ra l yea rs. In t hat pe r iod t he gro up o f S.N. Ver no v was co nc er ned wit h t he res earc h o f co s mic ra ys in t he uppe r la yer s o f at mosp here b y mea ns o f instr ume nt s, f lo wn on rad ioso ndes. I n Figure 1 t he mo me nt o f la unc h o f t he inst r ume nt o n t he gar la nd o f t he ba lloo ns whic h


required t he q uiet co nd it io ns o f t he at mosp here a nd t he k no wn e xper t ness to get awa y fro m t he e ffect o f p e nd ulum a nd o f impact wit h t he ne ighbor str uct ure s.

Fig. 1. Mo me nt o f la unc hing t he instr ume nt fo r cos mic ra y resea rc h o n t he gar la nd o f t he ba lloo ns. The wa y in cos mic ra y res earc h fa cts a nd t he y we re freq ue nt ly accord wit h t he ne w fact s. F irs t light p art ic le s as t he e lectro ns ha b y SNV was sp urred. There was o nly fe w e xper ime nta l co ntrad ictor y, so t ha t his vie wpo ints we re c ha nging in he s upposed t ha t cos mic ra y par t ic les ha ve s ma ll mass ­ ve. Lat er it appea red t ha t t he par t ic les in passa ge t hro ugh


mater ia ls be ha ve not as e lect ro ns, t he ir "mu lt ip licat io n" a re not in accord wit h q ua nt um theor y a ss uming e ve n re lat ivis t ic e ffects. SNV was mo ving to ward s t he idea t hat pr imar y cos mic ra ys are hea vie r, i.e. pro to ns, a nd t hat pro ving it req uir es to dete r mine t he c har ge of part ic le s. This was do ne b y us ing geo ma gnet ic fie ld a s a gia nt ma gnet ic a na lyzer sens it ive to to t he c ha r ged o f ana lize d part ic les. For t hat t he ins tr ume nt was flo wn into stra tosp here, where t he e ffect is mo re pro no unced, fro m board o f t he re searc h ves se l "Vit ya z". F ir st flight co nfir med t he ass ump t io n abo ut pos it ive e lect r ic c ha r ge o f pr imar y part ic les, whic h by a ugme nta t io n d ur ing pass a ge of a t mosp he re, prod uce seco ndar y part ic les, e lect ro ns [14 ]. Prese nt ly t he k no wled ge abo ut pr imar y cos mic ra ys is a lmost co mp le te. We k now t hat pr ima r ies co ns ist o f nuc le i o f a ll e le me nts o f Me nde lee v tab le, bas ica lly pro to ns a nd a lp ha par t ic les, howe ve r t he re a re appa re nt a lso nuc le i a nd o xyge n a nd iro n, a nd ver y rare ly a lso ura nium nuc le i. We k no w t ha t cos mic ra ys a rr ive to vic init y o f Ea rt h fro m dista nt space a nd t hat t he y br ing ne gligib le flux o f e ner gy (b y 10 6 t imes lo wer t ha n t ha t o f so lar light ). We k no w t ha t t he ind ivid ua l pa rt ic les carr y t he e nor mo us e ne r gy ( b y 10 3 t ime s higher t ha n co llid er in CERN). We k now t ha t t he se par t ic les wit h e no r mo us e ner gy co llid e wit h t he nuc le i o f t he at mosp here prod uc ing t hus t he e xte ns ive a ir s ho wers, not the b lack ho les. Cos mic ra ys intera cted wit h t he Ea rt h mi llio ns o f yea rs a nd d id not cras hed a nybod y. The re gular de tect io n o f cos mic ra ys in t he s tra tosp here star ted in for mer USS R in 1955 and it is r un re gular ly t ill tod a y. This a llowed to obta in co nt inuo us lo ng t ime ser ies o f cos mic ra y da ta, to s t ud y t he mec ha nis ms o f pr imar y cos mic ra y intera ct io ns wit h t he nuc le i o f at mosp he re, to find t hat a lso t he S un ge nera tes cos mic ra ys wit h so me what lo wer e ne r gie s t ha n pr imar y o nes. Year 1957 is t he sta rt ing yea r of space era. SNV immed iat e ly used t he ne w tec hnica l too l for co s mic ra y st ud ies. The takeo ff o f t hose invest igat io ns is a ma zing, t he sc ie nt ific gro up led b y SNV acco mp lis hed more t ha n 300 expe r ime nts o nboard o f va r io us cos mic appara t uses. The we ight o f t he de ve loped sc ie nt if ic devices mea s ur ing in spa ce in depend e nce o f t he tasks a nd poss ib ilit ies, ra nged fro m 500 g to 10 to ns. So me o f t hese e xpe r ime nts were not repeated, a nd in t he paper the y are me nt io ned s hor t ly. For the invest igat io n o f part ic le s wit h ver y high e ner gy, SNV crea ted in Mosco w State Univer s it y a huge (accord ing to t ha t t ime ) eq uip me nt co ns ist ing o f hundr eds o f unit s o ver the ter r itor y o f Univers it y ca mp us, eac h o f t he m wit h t he co mp le x de vice det ect ing t hus each seco nda r y par t ic le p rod uced in t he Ear t h's at mosp her e b y a pr imar y par t ic le. S uc h equip me nts ha ve bee n es tab lis hed late r in Yak ut sk ( in Mosco w t here was not s uffic ie nt area) a nd in Sa marka nd (bet ter at mosp he r ic co nd it io ns ). In t his ma nne r, t he who le sc ie nt if ic life o f SNV has be e n d ivided into t hree co mpet it ive d ir ect io ns : co s mic ra y researc h in t he a t mosp he re o f Eart h, in sp ace, a nd o n t he gro und. Due to br ill ia nt expe r ie nce a nd lar ge e ffo rt o f SNV a ll t hree d irec t io ns wer e de ve loped. Be lo w t he e xper ime nts in t he s tra tosp here a nd in space will be s ho rt ly desc r ibed. The researc h o f e xte ns ive a t mosp he r ic s howe rs is no t to uc hed s ince t he a ut ho rs o f t he paper did no t par t ic ipate in t ha t sc ie nt ific d ire ct io n.

2. Cosmi c ray research on the arti fi ci al satell i tes of Earth, on other spacecrafts and in the upper atm osphere.


2.1. Galacti c cosmi c rays.
Preparat io n o f expe r ime nts fo r the sate llit es be ga n in USSR in 1956. At t he me e t ing o f Acade my o f Sc ie nces o f USSR t here wa s fo r mulated t he task for t he lead ing spec ia lis ts on p hys ic s o f upper at mosp her e, ma gnet ic fie ld, io nosp here a nd cos mic ra ys to p ro vide sugge st io ns ­ proj ects o f t he e xper ime nts o n ar t ific ia l sate ll ites o f Eart h. Ac ade mic ia n D. Skobelts yn pa rt ic ipa t ing at t he meet ing a ut ho r is ed S.N. Ve r no v to co nd uct t hese act ivit ies. Alo ng wit h o ne o f t he a ut ho rs o f t he pape r (Yu.I. Lo gac he v) SNV s tep up to des ign a nd d e ve lop me nt o f t he de vice for detec t io n o f cos mic ra y pa rt ic le s. Tra jector ies of t he fir st sate ll ite s we re o n t he a lt it ude s 300 - 1500 k m. At t hese a lt it udes, a lo ng wit h t he cos mic ra y pa rt ic les, t he re has be e n par t ic les trapped in geo ma gnet ic fie ld (rad iat io n be lts of Eart h). Howe ve r, d ur ing t he de ve lop me nt o f t he mea s ure me nt d e vice for t he fir st art ific ia l sat e llite s o f Ear t h, t his wa s no t k no wn, a nd t he appara t us was ta r geted o nly to cos mic ra y resea rc h. I n F igure 2 t her e is pr inc ipa l sc he me o f t he de tec tors a nd o f t he e lect ro nics for t he ins tr ume nts ins ta lled in t he s eco nd So viet sate ll ite flo wn o nto t he orb it on No ve mb er 3, 1957. The dead lines we re t ight, t he tec hno lo gy was ne w, a nd na t ura lly the s uggest io ns o f t he a ut hors o f t he co nst r uct io n o f t he instr ume nt ha ve bee n lim ite d by ver y s imp le unders ta nd ing: to ut ilize a s detec tors t he gas d isc har ge counters a nd se mico nd uc tor e lec tro nic s. S .N . Ver no v s uppor ted co mp lete ly t he s ugges t io ns. Le t us re mark t hat prese nt ly t here are work ing in space rat he r sop hist icated co mp le x detec tor sys te ms, ut iliz ing prac t ica lly a ll rec e nt me t hods of par t ic le dete ct io n: sc int illa t io n a nd se mico nd uc tor co unters, ma gne t ic spec tro mete rs, t rack det ector s a nd t he ir co mb ina t io ns. The e le me nt s o f orb it o f t he seco nd So vie t art if ic ia l sat e llite were t he fo llo wing: a lt it ude at per igee ­ 225 k m, at apo gee ­ 1670 k m a nd apo gee o f t he orb it was s it uated in sout her n he misp here a t t he lat it ude ~ 45 . Te le metr y s ys te m was switc hed o n 2 - 3 times per da y o n t he orb its pass ing o ve r t he t err itor y o f USS R. Po ints of a ccepta nc e of te le metr y infor mat io n were dep lo yed a lso abo ve t he ter r ito r y of USSR. There wa s no me mor y e le me nts on board t he sa te llit e and t hus t he infor mat io n abo ut t he cos mic ra ys enco mpassed o nly t he la t it udes a nd lo ngit ude s o f USS R a nd t he a lt it udes in t he ra nge o f 225 to 600 k m.


Fig. 2. Pr inc ipa l sc he me o f t he detec tors a nd o f e lec tro nics p laced o nboard o f t he second So vie t s ate llit e. A ­ a mp li fier o f t he s igna l fro m co unt er, T ­ t r igge r o f t he reducer o f t he co unt rate. The flight o f t he seco nd sate ll ite co nfir med t he p iec es o f k no wled ge o f cos mic ra ys : t he obser ved lat it ud ina l a nd a lt it ude depend e nce o f cos mic ra y inte ns it y d id no t contrad ict to a lread y obta ined data, a nd j ust o n a s ingle orb it t he re wa s re gis tered a no ma lo us ly high count ing rate o f de tecto rs (F ig.3), whic h was interp re ted as p e netr at io n o f t he so lar part ic les into t he po lar re gio ns o f ma gne tosp here o f Ea rt h. Lat er, it beca me c lear t hat o n Nove mbe r 7, 1957, the sa te llit e obser ved t he prec ip ita t io n o f t he rad iat io n be lt par t ic les into t he uppe r la yer s o f t he at mosp he re d ue to t he ac t io n o f modera te geo ma gne t ic act ivit y [15, 16 ].


Fig.3. Va r ia t io ns o f cos mic ra y int e ns it y d ur ing o ne o f t he orb its o f t he seco nd sate ll ite over t he nort her n re gio ns o f USSR. Nowada ys it is c lea r t hat it wa s prec ip itat io n o f t he part ic les fro m o uter rad iat io n be lt d ur ing geo ma gne t ic act ivit y. N umbe rs 1 a nd 2 correspo nd to read- outs o f t he t wo de tecto rs. Disco ve r y o f rad ia t io n be lts o f Ear t h (RB) s tro ngly c ha nged t he p la ns for fut ure re searc h works, p us hing a s ide t he cos mic ra y invest igat io n. Ne ver t he le ss, in a ll poss ib ilit ies, dur ing t he fl ights o f var io us space ve hic le s, t her e we re co nd ucted meas ure me nts o f cos mic ra ys too. The space fl ights, wher e detec tors o f pr ima r y ( ga lact ic) a s we ll as o f so lar cos mic ra ys were us ed, are : Flights to Moo n; Interp la neta r y flight s : to Ve nus, Mars, a nd int erp la netar y p robes ; Hea vy sa te llit es Proto n; Selected s ate llit es o f ser ies Cos mo s. 2.1.1. Luna r prog ra m. By t he la unc h of t hree sa te llit es a nd t hus de mo ns trat ing t he poss ib ilit ies of cos mic tec hno lo gy of USS R, whic h was import a nt d ur ing t he no n- q uie t t ime per iod, it beca me nece ssar y to pro vide new steps in t he space p ro gra m, s ince t he la unc h of j ust few sate llit es wo uld not ind uce lar ge reso na nc e. And t he task number o ne b eca me Moo n. It was nec essar y to se nd o ut t he ro cket to t he Moo n to de mo ns tra te t hat Moo n was reac hed. There we re a lso d isc ussed t he var ia nts o f t he e xp los io n o f a to mic bo mb o n luna r s ur face. Fort unate ly s uc h t ype o f s ugges t io ns d id not find s upport. F irst s ucc ess ful la unc h wa s on Janua r y 2, 1959. The seco nd was la unc hed o n Sep te mb er 12, 1959 a nd t he t hird o ne o n October 4, 1959, j us t t wo year s a fter t he la unc h o f t he fir st a rt ific ia l sate ll ite o f Eart h. The task o f t he fir st two flights wa s ar r iva l to Moo n's s ur face, t he t hird o ne was a imed to take photo s o f t he re ver sed s id e o f t he Moo n. The fir st sp ace ve hic le d id no t rea c h t he Moo n a lt ho ugh it approac hed re lat ive ly c lose ly to its s ur face (5000 k m). Seco nd d e vice reac hed the lunar s ur fa ce, and be fo re it cras hed a nd wa s destro yed b y hit t ing t he s ur face, it succ eeded to meas ure t he ma gne t ic fie ld a nd rad iat io n in t he vic init y o f Moo n. The flight of t hat d e vice was ob ser ved b y t he Jodr e ll Ba nk Obse r vato r y in UK. I n Europe j ust t hat obser vato r y had a la r ge ante nna capab le to rece ive weak rad ios igna ls. The Observa tor y confir med t he hit o f t he appar at us o n lunar s ur face j ust in t he co mp uted t ime. The flight of lunar sta t io n a nd its "mee t ing" wit h t he Moon o n Septe mber 14, 1959, were abso lute ly impo rta nt eve nts in t he his tor y o f space resea rc h and t he y beca me t he tr iump h of t he o f t he So vie t ro cket a nd e lect ro nic tec hno lo gy. More deta ils abo ut t he lunar fl ights can be fo und in [17 ]. The t hird de vice mad e t he s naps hots o f t he lunar s ur face, a nd a lt ho ugh t he y were no t ver y br ight, t he y were t he firs t s naps hot s o f t he re vers e s ide o f t he Moo n. It beca me c lea r t hat the re ver se s ide o f Moo n is s imi lar to t he vis ib le o ne, t he re are c rater s, seas a nd o t her peculia r it ies. I n t he at las o f t he re ve rse s ide o f t he Moo n is s ued, t he pec ulia r it ies were ass igned t he na mes o f impor ta nt pe rso ns, who co ntr ib uted to t he d isc uss io ns o n o r igin o f the Moo n, to t he new hypot hese s etc.


On a ll t hre e o f t he So viet lunar de vices, na med s ubseq ue nt ly as Luna - 1, Luna- 2 and Luna- 3, the re were p laced our sc ie nt ific ins tr ume nts fo r meas ure me nt o f cos mic ra y part ic les a nd pa rt ic le s o f rad iat io n be lts o f Ea rt h. Espec ia lly la r ge co mp le x o f t he ins tr ume nts was o nboard o f Luna- 2. I n t he instr ume nt s t he y we re sc int il lat io n a nd gas - d var io us scree nings. The co mp le x o f d e vices o f t he firs t lunar [18]. The ma in ta sk o f t he flight o f t he sta t io n Luna - 3 wa s to Moon a nd t hat is why t he p lace a nd we ight for o t her de vices was t he sta t io ns Luna - 1 and is c har ged co unter s wit h mis s io ns is desc r ibed in take p ho to grap hs o f t he ve r y limit ed.

Onboard o f a ll t hree luna r miss io ns our de vice was work ing ve r y we ll a nd in teres t ing res ults we re obta ined. Alo ng wit h t he US probes P io neer - 1, - 3, the So vie t probes ha ve flown t hro ugh t he who le t hick ness o f rad iat io n be lts a nd t he y dete r mined t he spat ia l distr ib ut io n o f rad ia t io n at lar ge d is ta nces fro m Ea rt h a nd at s light ly lar ge r lat it udes. I n Figure 4 t he depe nde nce o f io niza t io n in t he cr ys ta l NaJ (Tl) a lo ng t he t rajec tor y fro m t he dista nce a nd o f geo ma gne t ic fie ld line s lat it ud ina l p rojec t io ns fo r t he s t at io ns Luna- 1 a nd Luna- 2 is s ho wn.


Fig.4. Io niza t io n in cr ys ta l NaJ (TI) d ur ing t he fl ights o f t he sp ace st at io ns Luna - 1 (2.01.59) a nd Luna- 2 (12.09.1959) t hro ugh t he r ad ia t io n be lts o f Ea rt h. It is app are nt t hat two d iffer e nt fl ights at c lo se tra jecto r ies ha ve s hown d iffere nt str uc t ure of o uter rad iat io n be lt, ind ica t ing t hus t he instab il it y o f o ute r be lt ­ te mpo ra l var iat io ns o f part ic le flux wit hin t he trapp ing re gio n. Meas ure me nt s o n Luna - 1 fo r t he firs t t ime a llo wed to es t imate t he a lt it ude pro fi le o f t he int e ns it y o f t rapped par t ic les a lo ng t he geo ma gnet ic fie ld line. Luna- 1 crossed t hree t imes t he s a me geo ma gnet ic fie ld line, na me ly at a lt it ude s 8700, 11000 a nd 18250 k m. At t ho se a lt it udes t he sc int illa t io n detecto rs obser ved t he e ner gy depo s it in t he c r ysta l corr espo nd ing to 30, 65 and 145 GeV/. S uc h va lue s o f e ne r gy depos it io n s ho w t ha t t he a lt it ude pro file at la r ger d is ta nces fro m t he Ear t h is we aker t ha n t hat obser ved a t low a lt it udes, where t he Ear t h's at mosp he re p la ys a mor e impo rta nt ro le in t he los ses o f trapped pa rt ic le s. This par t o f t he lunar miss io n pro gra mm la id t he fo undat io ns o f t he beginning o f sys te mat ic res earc h o f rad iat io n be lts o f Ear t h, whic h was s ubseq ue nt ly co nt inued inte ns ive ly wit h use o f ot he r space ve hic les ( Elect ro n, Mo lnija, geosta t io na r y sate llit es etc.). O nboard o f t hese s ate llit es t here we re pro vided s t ud ie s not o nly o f rad iat io n be lts, but a lso o f t he ma gnetosp he re in its co mp le x, it s s tr uc t ure, var iat io ns, re la t io ns to t he so lar ac t ivit y pro cesses a nd ot her e ffec ts. In t he fo llo wing t ime t he resea rc h o f r ad ia t io n b e lt s o f Ear t h were not co nd ucted in t he lunar pro gra mmes whic h was tar ge ted e xc lus ive ly for st ud ies o f lunar e nviro nme nt. The

Fig.5. F lux o f ra d ia t io n in t he ope n spa ce a nd o n t he lunar s ur face accord ing to data o f t he gas- d is c har ge co unter o nboa rd t he s tat io n Luna- 9.

st ud ies o f t he Moon, ho we ver, inc luded a lso t he fluxes o f ga la ct ic and so lar cos mic ra ys, the rad io act ivit y o f t he lunar s ur fa ce a nd fluxes o f lunar a lbedo pa rt ic les, i.e. o f seco ndar y part ic les e mit ted fro m t he s ur fac e d ue to t he interac t io n o f ga lact ic a nd so la r cos mic ra ys


wit h nuc le i o f t he mat er ia ls o f t he s ur fa ce. S uc h mea s ure me nts we re do ne o n a ll sta t io ns fro m Luna- 4 t il l Luna- 16 as we ll as d ur ing t he fl ight o f a uto ma t ic inte rp la ne tar y sta t io n Zo nd- 3 (J uly ­ Dece mber 1965) whic h pro vided t he p ho tos o f t he r e verse s id e o f t he Moon o nce more. Amo ng t he Luna's miss io ns spec if ic p lace be lo ngs to t he s tat io n Luna9 whic h la nded so ft ly o n t he lunar s ur face o n Febr uar y 3, 1966. Re s ults o f o ur expe r ime nt ope rated t here are s ho wn in F igur e 5. F luxes o f cos mic ra ys in t he ope n space must b e t wo t ime lar ge r t ha n o n t he luna r s ur face whe re t he fie ld o f vie w o f t he instr ume nt was lowe r b y facto r o f 2 d ue to scree ning b y t he bod y o f Moo n. I t app eares that t he s ur face flux wa s lo wer o nly b y fac tor 1.6, not b y 2 as e xpec ted beca use o f t he rad ioac t ivit y o f t he s ur face p lus a lbedo cos mic ra y par t ic les. Ass uming t hese factor s, it was poss ib le to est ima te t he rad ioac t ivit y e mis s io n o f t he s ur face o f Moo n, whic h was c lose to t he rad ioa ct ivit y o f t he Eart h's gro und 19 ]. This res ult has s ho wn t ha t t here is no dange ro us rad ia t io n o n t he lunar s ur face, and t hat a ma n can s ta y t here for lo ng t ime wit ho ut spec if ic wo rr ying. Speak ing abo ut t he inves t iga t io ns o f t he Moo n fro m more ge nera l po int o f vie w, no t o nly on re lat io ns to cos mic ra ys, it is neces sar y to reca ll t he phe no me na l s uc cess o f US sc ie nt ist s acco mp lis hing t he la nd ing o n t he Moo n a nd sa fe re co ver y to t he Ea rt h o f a ll astro na uts vis it ing t he Moo n. For t he fir st t ime t he ma n co me to Moo n in 1969 a nd a fter that t he e xped it io ns were r epeated five t imes. There is e xte nded litera t ur e descr ib ing these ac t ivit ies. The se flight s ha ve s ho wn pr inc ip a l po ss ib il it y to e stab lis h o n t he Moo n the sc ie nt ific s tat io ns for t he lo ng t er m ope rat io ns, inc lud ing a lso cos mic ra y obser vat io ns. Cos mic ra y rese arc h o n t he Moo n posse s a numbe r o f s ubs ta nt ia l adva nta ges in co mpar iso n wit h Ea rt h' s resea rc h, s inc e Moo n mor e t ha n 80% o f t he t ime is in t he ope n space, a nd o nly 2 0% o f t he to ta l t ime it is in t he d is ta nt ma gnetosp he r ic ta il, where t he sc ree ning b y t he ma gne t ic fie ld is no t s ignific a nt. This mea n s t hat meas ure me nt s of cos mic ra ys on t he Moo n or in its vic init y, fro m t he luna r sate llit es, are not a ffec ted by t he influe nce o f Eart h's ma gne tosp here, whic h is no t t he case o f inner ma gnetosp he r ic sat e llite s o f Ea rt h flying e ve n be hind t he ma gneto sp her i c bo undar ies into nea r inte rp la ne tar y spac e (So vie t sate ll ites Pro gno z, Us sa te llit es IMP e tc.). Beca use o f that o nboard o f a ll lunar space s tat io ns la nded o n t he Moo n, on lunoc hods or o n t he art ific ia l sa te llit es o f Moo n, t here were inst r ume nts for invest igat io ns o f so lar a nd ga lact ic cos mic r a ys. 2.1.2. Sate llite s "Pro to n" and o t he rs s tudy i ng ve ry hig h e ne rgy cos mic rays . In t he for me r USS R due to init iat ive o f S.N. Ver no v t her e were do ne for t he fir st t ime st ud ies o f cos mic ra ys o nbo ard hea vy ar t ific ia l sate ll ites. The co mme nce me nt was do ne by 4 hea vy sa te llit es o f t he ser ies Proto n, whe re t he y were pro vided t he first d irect meas ure me nt s of t he ene r gy spectr a of a ll p art ic le s o f cos mic ra ys up to e ner gy 10 15 eV, as we ll as depe nde nces o f p roto n- proto n interac t io n cros s sec t io n in t he ra nge 10 11 - 1012 eV. In 1960e s t her e wer e pro vided inte ns ive de ve lop me nt a nd te st ing o f new rockets bo t h in USSR a nd in US. I n USS R a lo ng wit h t he rocket whic h la unc hed into t he space t he first sate llit es o f Eart h a nd so nds to wards Moo n, in 1962 t he rocket o f t he t yp e Kos mos was cons tr uc ted, a nd in 1965 sta rted t he tes ts o f t he ne w rocke t whic h was a t t ha t t ime t he mo st powe r ful o ne a nd was la ter used for t he la unc h o f t he hea vy sate ll ites not o nly o f


Russ ia n p rod uct io n b ut a lso for ma ny sate ll ites o f ot he r co untr ie s ­ rocke t Pro to n. Its na me was o r iginated fro m t he na me o f s ate llit es o f t he t ype Pro to n la unc hed by t hat rocket in 1965. The his tor y o f t hose la unc hes is t he fo llowing: whe n t he t ime fo r t he te sts of t he ne w rock et cap ab le to la unc h o nto t he Ear t h's o rb it se ve ra l to ns, app roac hed, t here were d isc ussed two poss ib le loads : t he se vera l to ns o f t he sa nd or t he sc ie nt ific instr ume nt s. O f co urse t he sa nd was more s imp le load a nd t here was no r isk if t he la unc h is not s ucce ss ful. Nobody at t hat t ime was co ns tr uc t ing a ny sc ie nt if ic ins tr ume nt o f s uc h we ight a nd to la unc h a uniq ue sc ie nt ific inst r ume nt fo r t he firs t test ing flight was r isk y. Wha t wil l happe n if t he la unc h fa ils ? And t he d ead line o f t he flight was app roa c hing, only le ss t ha n a yea r re ma ined. Howe ve r, t he I nst it ut e o f Nuc lear P hys ics o f t he Mo scow State Unive rs it y s ugges ted a sc ie nt ific task, r eq uir ing to carr y o ut t he hea vy de vice, a nd made a co mm it o nese lf to co nst r uct s uc h appa rat us unt il t he req uir ed t ime d ead line ( t here was a lread y hop e t ha t a lso peop le dea ling wit h t he co nst r uct io n o f rocke ts will be de la yed). The sc ie nt ific ta sk co ns ist ed in res earc h o f e ne r gy sp ectr a a nd o f co mpos it io n of ga lac t ic cos mic ra ys in t he ra nge o f e ner gies 10 11 - 1014 e. Meas ure me nt o f e ne r gy o f suc h part ic les req uire s its s topp ing in t he vo lume o f t he detec tor s yst e m itse lf. S topp ing of t he par t ic les in t he de vice a llo ws to d eter mine t he ir e ner gy, ho we ver t he ra nge o f proto ns a nd prod uct io n o f seco nda r y par t ic les ins ide t he s yste m a t s uc h high e ne r gies is equiva le nt to t he t hick ness mo re t ha n a mete r o f iro n, i.e. t he absorpt io n req uires t he device o f ver y la r ge vo lume fil led wit h hea vy ma ter ia l ( le ad, iro n e tc.). Acc e ler at io n o f cha r ged part ic les to s uc h high e ner gies wa s impo ss ib le b y mea ns o f acce lerato rs in laborato r ie s a nd t he p la nned e xper ime nts as ide t he ast rop hys ica l tasks as meas ure me nt s o f e ne r gy spec tra a nd o f c he mica l co mpos it io n o f cos mic ra ys, were pro mis ing in t he se nse o f nuc lear p hys ics aspec ts, as unders ta nd ing t he be ha vior o f cro sssect io n o f p roto n a nd /or nuc le us ­ nuc le us intera ct io ns o f hea vie r e le me nt s at t he increased e ner gy.

Fig.6. Sc he me o f t he de vice SEZ- 14. I detecto r; I II ­ io niza t io n ca lor imet er; 1 diffuse r o f t he detec tor o f e ner gy; 12 ­ of lowe r sc int illa t io n de tec tor; 14 ­ 16 proport io na l co unter) ; 18 ­ det ector o f ­ lead;

­ det ector o f interac t io ns ; I I ­ lo wer sc int il lat io n ­ 10 ­ sc int illa tors o f t he de tecto r o f e ner gy; 11 ­ d iffuser o f detec tor o f int erac t io ns ; 13 ­ d iffuse r ­ p ho to mult ip liers ; 17 ­ c har ge de tec tor (do ub led t he d irec t io n ; ­ abso rber; b ­ iro n; c ­ carbo n; d


At t ha t t ime fo r meas ur e me nt of e ne r gy of cos mic ra ys in t he gro und - based e xper ime nta l equip me nts t he y wer e wide ly us ed t he io nisa t io n ca lor imete rs de ve loped ear lie r in USSR laborato r ie s [20 ]. S uc h me t hodo lo gy was app lied a lso o n sa te llit es Proto n as we ll as o n coup le o f o t her s, la unc hed la ter wit h p urpo se o f s imila r - t ype s t ud ies. The me t hod o f meas ure me nt wa s propo sed b y N.L. Gr igoro v who led t he resea rc h o r ie nted o n cons tr uc t io n o f s uc h t ype o f de vices a nd a na lys is o f data ob ta ined. On sate ll ite Pro to n- 1 there was p laced t he de vice S EZ- 14 (acro nyme o f Russ ia n word s spectra, e ne r gy and cha r ge up to 1014 eV) wit h t he we ight a ro und 7 to ns. The co mp le x de vice S EZ- 14 alo ng wit h t he ca lor imet er inc luded a lso detec tors o f c har ge o f par t ic les ­ io niza t io n c ha mbers and t he ta r get co mposed o f grap hite a nd iro n, whe re t he interac t io ns wit h t he ma ter ia l took p lace. The co ns tr uc t io n o f SEZ- 14 is sc he mat ica lly s ho wn in F igur e 6. Eve n for t he Inst it ute o f N uc lear P hys ic s o f t he Mosco w Sta te Univers it y ( furt he r I nst it ute) , t he des ign and co ns tr uc t io n o f t ha t co mp le x de vice wit hin s hor t t ime inte r va l req uired enor mo us e ffort. Accord ing to t he instr uct io n o f headq uarte rs (S.N. Ver no v) for t he cons tr uc t io n o f t ha t appa rat us ha ve bee n t hro wn up a ll reso urce s o f t he I nst it ute inc lud ing the fina nc ia l o ne s. Almo st t he who le pote nt ia l o f mec ha nica l wo rks hops, a nd in 1960es it was fa r not ne gligib le, a nd la r ge gro up o f e lec tro nic e nginee rs wa s invo lved in wo rks o f cons tr uc t io n t he appara t us fo r t he sate ll ites o f t ype Pro to n. The a ut ho r it ies o f S.N. Ver no v and N.L. Gr igoro v made po ss ib le to prep are a pro tot ype o f t he de vice S EZ- 14 and o f its bas ic e le me nts (co nstr uc t io n e le me nts, fixa t io n o f t he iro n absorber ) by ut il izing t he power o f co nst r uct io n depar t me nt, whe re t he rocket- car r ier a nd t he sate ll ite itse lf were e labora ted. This wa s s igni fica nt co mpo ne nt o f t he s uc ces ful "prod uct io n" o f t he de vice, ho we ver, a ll ma in q uest io ns o f t he de s ign o f eq uip me nt were d isc uss ed and dec ided in the I ns t it ute : t he de vice was eq uipped b y e xte ns ive e lec tro nic s : e. g. it invo lved se ve ra l hundred s o f p ulse a mp lif iers. Be fore sate ll ites Proto n s uc h e xte ns ive a nd co mp licated devices were no t co ns tr uc ted a nd la unc hed. The tea m o f I nst it ute acco mp lis hed a sc ie nt if ic record b y co nst r uct io n o f t he de vice wit hin ver y s ho rt t ime - 9 mo nt hs. That device wa s wo rk ing aro und 3 mo nt hs in spa ce wit ho ut a ny fa ilure. Dur ing t he fl ights o f sa te llit es Pro to n- 1,- 2,- 3 a uniq ue r es ults abo ut t he st iff c ha nge o f t he s lope o f e ne r gy spec tra ar o und e ner gy o f p roto ns 2.10 12 eV were obt a ined [21 ]. Unt il now this res ults are not co nfir med a nd no t de c lined. At t he sa me t ime t he s lop e of e ner gy spectra of t he s um of a ll cos mic ra y p r imar ie s (pro to ns, He, hea vier e le me nts ) re ma ined wit ho ut t he be nd, whic h is in a gr ee me nt wit h t he res ults of o t her ind irec t mea s ure me nts. I f t he spect ra o f pro to ns is rea lly be nt wit h s ignific a nt c ha nge o f t he s lope, t his mea ns t hat in t he high e ner gy par t o f t he spect ra o f pr imar y cos mic ra ys t here must e xist t he c ha nge of c he mic a l co mpo s it io n o f p r imar ie s wit h e nr ic hme nt o f hea vy e le me nts, s ince t he fract io n o f proto ns at high e ner gie s is ne gligib ly s ma ll. This mea ns t ha t cor rect io ns into the mec ha nis ms o f ac ce ler at io n in t he so urce mus t be inc luded, req uir ing t he p redo mina nt acce lera t io n o f nuc le i wit h Z>2. I mporta nce o f t hose co nc lus io ns is e vid e nt, ho we ver, it is des irab le to ha ve higher co nfide nce in t ha t aspec t. To co nfir m t ha t res ult a nd to s hift towa rds mea s ure me nts at higher e ner gies, t he new device wit h geo me tr ic fac tor increas ing b y facto r 10 na med IK - 15 (Io niza t io n ca lor ime ter up to 1015 eV) was co nstr uc ted for P roto n- 4. Ho we ver res ults fro m Pro to n- 4 d id not give


una mb igio us res ult o n t he be nd o f pro to n spec tra. A co up le o f more fl ights wit h t he device ( tab le 1 ) ga ve no c le ar rep ly to t hat q ue st io n. Met hodo lo gica l re aso ns o f t he c ha nge o f s lope o f e ner gy spec tra ma y lie in t he na t ure o f the e ner ge t ic part ic les t he mse lves, na me ly in t he cr eat io n o f s eco ndar y pa rt ic le s prod uced in t he ca lor ime ter whe re t he e ner gy o f seco ndar y par t ic les mo ving in a ll d irect io ns is meas ured, inc lud ing t hose pa rt ic les mo ving into t he c har ge detec tor, whic h, in t he ca se o f proto ns mus t detec t as a single c har ged par t ic le. W it h t he increas ing e ner gy o f pr imar y part ic le, t he number o f seco ndar ies pro d uced in t he mat erial o f t he de vice increa ses too. This e ffe ct, na med as r e verse flux o f par t ic le, is we ll k no wn. Appe ara nce o f par t ic les o f the re ve rse flux in t he de tecto r o f c har ges "co nver ts " t he e ve nt o f detec t io n o f p roto n into the e ve nt o f part ic le wit h higher c ha r ge whic h ma y lead t o t he loss o f co unt ra te o f proto ns. S inc e t he e ffec t o f re ve rse flux inc reases wit h t he increase o f e ner gy o f pr imar y proto ns, t he numbe r of "no t counted proto ns " increas es too. This ma y lead to t he obser ved be nd o f proto n e ner gy spec tra. Prob le m o f t he e ffect o f re ve rse flux fro m io nisa t io n ca lo r imete r causes ser io us obstac le for cor rect mea s ure me nt o f t he e ner gy spectra o f p rot io ns at high e ne r gies. Ana lys is o f tracks in p ho toe muls io ns e xposed to cos mic ra ys at I nter cos mo s- 6 was do ne in co llabora t io n wit h ot he r labora tor ies, o ne o f the m was I EP SAS Kos ice. Tab le 1. Ea rt h o rbi ti ng s ate lli te s wit h me as ure me nts of hig h e ne rgy cos mic rays Sate llite Year De vice W ight o f device ( in to ns ) 7 7 7 12,5 2,4 2,4 2,4 Time o f act ive work in space 3 mo nt hs 3 mo nt hs 3 mo nt hs 8 mo nt hs 4 days 27 days 25 days De vice ret ur ned to t he Ear t h Comme nt

Proto n- 1 Proto n- 2 Proto n- 3 Proto n- 4 Interco s mos- 6 Cosmo s- 1543 Cosmo s- 1713

1965 SEZ- 14 1965 SEZ- 14 1966 SEZ- 14 1968 IK - 15 1972 Photoe muls io ns 1984 SOKOL 1986 SOKOL

To s tr uggle wit h t he re ver se flux, in t he de vic e ca lled SOKOL (a cro nym fro m t he r us s ia n words o f t he ma in ta sk o f e xper ime nt ­ co mpo s it io n o f co s mic ra ys), work ing o n sate llit es Cos mos- 1543 a nd Cos mos- 1713, la unc hed a lmos t 10 years a fter s ate llit es Proto n ( tab le 1 ), t he d irec t io na l Chere nko v de tecto rs o f no t la r ge d ime ns io ns, we re used fo r meas ure me nts o f proto ns Z=1 a nd o f a lo ha part ic les Z=2. This a llowed to a lar ge


exte nt to e li mina te t he e ffect o f re verse flux o n dete r minat io n o f c har ge. F urt he r more, t he pict ure o f pass ing t he par t ic le t hro ugh t he de vice was vis ua lized, so t hat it was po ss ib le to set o ff t he part ic les a s we ll as t he e lect ro ma gne t ic cas cades prod uced b y t he m in t he a ligne me nt o f t he de vice. This approac h a llo wed to dete r mine t he ene r gy o f part ic le wit h better co nfide nce.


Fig.7. Ene r gy spect ra o f nuc le i o f carbo n ( ), o xyge n () a nd iro n Fe () in t he re gio n of high e ner gy accord ing to t he re s ult s o f flight s eq uipped wit h t he co mp le x de vice SOKOL. The e xper ime nts onbo ard Cos mos- 1543 and Cos mos- 1713 wit h t he de vice SOKOL ha ve sho wn t hat t his de vice per mits to fight e ffect ive ly wit h t he e ffe ct o f re ver se flux. Howe ve r, t he una mb igo us rep ly to t he ma in q uest io n abo ut t he s hape o f pr imar y p roto n spectra was no t ac hie ved b eca use t he opera t io na l t ime o f t he sa te llit es wa s les s t ha n o ne mo nt h a nd t he sta t is t ic s o n proto ns obta ined wa s ins uffic ie nt for t he s ubs ta nt iated conc lus io ns. For t he conc lus ive set t le me nt o f t he impor ta nt q ues t io n t here is req uire me nt to la unc h s im ila r t ype o f e xper ime nt for lo nger t ime meas ure me nt in sp ace. Unt il now suc h e xp er ime nt was no t co nd uct ed yet. As a n a lte r nat ive ma y be co ns ide red t he expe r ime nt At ik r un in t he fra me o f inter na t io na l co llabora t io n o n ba lloo ns detec t ing cos mic ra ys at high a lt it udes o ver Antar ct ica [22, 23]. F igure 7 s hows t he e ner gy spec tra of , a nd o f t he gro up Fe. F itt ing t he spect ra b y powe r la w s hape, t he inde x is =2,5. Almo st t he sa me s lope is ob ta ined for t he e ner gy spe ctra o f He nuc le i. Ra t io s o f cos mic ray fluxe s at d iffe re nt e ner gies c ha racte r izing t he co mpos it io n o f par t ic les a t par t ic ular ene r gy, are p ract ica lly t he sa me as t hose at low e ner gy. This mea ns t ha t in t he fra me o f that appro ximat io n, co s mic ra y co mpo s it io n re ma ins a lmost t he sa me in t he e ner gy ra nge fro m 1 GeV/ nuc l to 1000 Ge V/ nuc l. At higher e ne r gie s t here a re ind icat io ns o f enr ic hme nt o f he a vy nuc le i in ga lact ic cos mic ra ys. Let us me nt io n t ha t t hese e xpe r ime nts a llo wed to s hift wit h obse r ved e ner gies o f cos mic rays up to a lmos t 2 eV/ nuc l for nuc le i a nd . Stat is t ica l erro rs in t his e ner gy ra nge are st ill lar ge. It is needed to co nt inue s uc h t ype o f meas ure me nts to ac c umulate higher stat ist ics, espec ia ly at high e ner gies. Ut il izing t he eq uip me nt SOKOL for t his a im is a n adequa te app roac h for t his task : it is necessa r y to e nha nc e t he d ur at io n o f t he meas ure me nt s by fa ctor o f 10- 20, whic h is fully poss ib le wit h us ing t he e xis t ing too ls o f space tec hno lo gy. Alo ng wit h t ha t, t he I ns t it ute prepa red proposa ls for a co up le o f new e xpe r ime nts qua lif ied to mo ve to e ve n highe r e ne r gie s o f cos mic ra ys o n t he sate ll ites [24, 25]. The expe r ime nts descr ibed in t he abo ve me nt io ned p ub lica t io ns are now und er d isc uss io n a nd the y are p la nned to be a cco mp lis hed in neare st yea rs. On sate llit es Cos mo s- 1543 and Cos mos- 1713 the re we re obser ved a lso hea vy nuc le i o f cos mic ra ys in t he e ne r gy ra nge 50- 1000 Ge V/ nuc l, what a llo wed to obt a in t he e ne gy spectra o f nuc le i o f He, C, O and Fe [26 ]. I mpor ta nt da ta on p r imar y cos mic ra ys ha ve bee n obta ined rece nt ly fro m t he e xpe r ime nt Pame la insta lle d o n t he Re s urs- DK1 sat e llite la unc hed o n lo w a lt it ude near ly po lar orb it in J une 2006. Mor e deta ils abo ut t ha t miss io n, inter na t io na l co llabora t io n a nd pub lica t io ns ca n be fo und at ht tp :// h ttp ://p amela .ro ma 2. in fn . it/in d e x.p h p . Descr ipt io n o f t he expe r ime nt c a n be fo und e. g. in [27]. I n mis s io n Pa me la t he re was d isco ve red increas e o f the fr act io n o f po s it ro ns in e le ctro n- pos itro n co mpo ne nt o f co s mic ra ys wit h increa se o f ene r gy, rat io J+ /(J++J- ) [28 ]. This ma y be a s ignat ure fo r t he e xiste nce o f dark mat ter. Or, a lter nat ive ly, t here ma y be a not he r add it io na l so ur ce o f pos it ro ns pr od uc ing t he m wit h


effic ie nc y increa s ing wit h e ner gy. The d ata o n pos itro n co mpo ne nt a re re liab le d ue to high s tat ist ica l acc urrac y o f mea s ure me nts. The spectro met er has a per ma ne nt ma gnet and sepa rat io n o f e lectro ns a nd pos itro ns is re liab le. The e ner gy o f pa rt ic les is meas ured suffic ie nt ly acc ura te ly wit h t he he lp o f ca lo r imete r. The e xcess o f pos itro n fract io n and its increas e wit h e ne r gy is co nfir med re ce nt ly in miss io n Fer mi [29 ].

2.2. Solar cosmi c rays.
One o f t he ad mirab le prope rt y o f t he ga lac t ic cos mic ra ys is t he s tab ilit y o f its int e ns it y in t ime. Abo ve t his "back gro und " t he y were s imp ly de tac hed s udde n stro ng inc reases o f cos mic ra y inte ns it y re la ted to t he powe r ful proces ses o n t he S un. It beca me c lear t ha t t he Sun ge nera tes fro m t ime to t ime st ro ng fluxe s o f ene r get ic part ic les. The y obt a ined t he na me so la r cos mic ra ys (SCR). Po wer ful so lar e ve nts appear re la t ive ly rare ly, while less power ar e obser ved more freq ue nt ly, as it is us ua l for na t ure. First obser va t io ns o f SCR ha ve bee n do ne wit h he lp o f inst r ume nts o n t he gro und sens it ive o nly to higher pr imar y e ne r gy (> 1 Ge V). The e xper ime nts o n ba lloo ns in t he stra tosp here co uld obser ve part ic les wit h lo wer e ner gy t hre s ho ld (>100 Me V). Meas ure me nts a t high a lt it ude s ut iliz ing t he sate ll ites o f Ear t h and o t her space ve hic les a llo wed to ob ser ve less powe r ful e ffec ts, a nd unt il no w mo re t ha n 1000 e ve nt s wit h ene r get ic part ic le e miss io ns co nnected to so lar flares, ha ve bee n re gis tered. W hile t he firs t obser ved e ve nt s in ene r get ic part ic le s ha ve be e n re lated to t he e ffects o f ver y high power, a nd o nly t hose co uld be detec ted o nly wit h gro und b ased de vices, no wada ys t he instr ume nt s o n sa te llit es a nd space p robes a llo ws to see prac t ica lly a ll incr eases o f SCR flux reac hing t he vic init y o f t he Eart h. A t p rese nt re ma in no t obs er ved o nly few case s o f not powe r ful so la r e ve nt s o n t he re ve rse he misp he re o f S un, fro m whic h t he e ner ge t ic cha r ged part ic les d id not re ac h t he Ea rt h' s vic init y or t he s ite o f t he inte rp la ne tar y probe. To e xc lude t hese gaps it is s upposed to "pa tro l" t he space aro und t he Sun at va r io us he lio lo ngit ude s inc lud ing t he re verse he misp he re o f t he S un. The so lar mis s io n STEREO are a lr ead y fulfi ll ing t his pro gra mm. Most freq ue nt ly t he e ne r gy o f acc e ler ated so lar pa rt ic les does not e xceed 10 Me V/ nuc l (1 MeV fo r e lec tro ns ). Suc h fla res d ur ing t he so lar ac t ivit y ma ximu m occ ur o nce pe r week. Assoc ia ted par t ic les a re obser ved be yo nd t he ma gneto sp her ic bo undar ies, wit hin its per ip hera l re gio ns or in t he po la r cap. Le ss fr eq ue nt ly, t yp ic a lly o nc e per mo nt h appear t he flares acce lera t ing par t ic les to e ne r gy ~100 eV/ nuc l a nd higher. S uc h part ic les in t he po lar la t it udes pe ne tra te into t he at mosp here o f Ea rt h a nd ca n be obser ved d ur ing t he flight s o f high a lt it ud e ba lloo ns. I n e ve n more rare e ve nt s, obse r ved typ ica lly o nce p er year, part ic les are acce le rated to e ne r gy 1 Ge V. Ext re me ly power ful eve nts occ urr ing 2- 3 t imes per 11- year c yc le o f so lar ac t ivit y, are c harac ter ist ic wit h ver y high fluxe s o f acce le rated par t ic les wit h ma ximu m e ne r gy 10 GeV or e ve n mo re. Most freq ue nt ly t he y a re obser ved b y ne utro n mo nitors d is tr ib uted o ver t he wo r ld. 2.2.1. G round bas e d obs e rvat ions of CR varia bi lity a nd S CR.


Interp la neta r y ma gne t ic fie ld are pa rt ly s cree ning t he flux o f ga lact ic cos mic ra ys. Scree ning e ffec t, e spec ia lly at lo wer e ner gies, is var iab le in t ime a nd t hus cos mic ra y inte ns it y obser ved near Ear t h is te mpo rar y var iab le. Bo t h re gula r and q uas i- per iod ic (e. g. diur na l, ~27 da y, ~11 year) var iat io ns are co nnected wit h t he so lar a ct ivit y a nd p ro vide the infor mat io ns abo ut st r uct ur e of interp la neta r y ma gnet ic fie ld and o n so la r wind in t he he liosp he re. More de ta iled re vie w o n cos mic ra y va r ia t io ns ca n be fo und in [30,31] a nd in mo no grap hs [32, 33 ]. Rese arc h o f cos mic ra y va r ia t io ns req uire s lo ng t ime s er ies o f ho mo ge neo us meas ur e me nts. F irs t instr ume nt de voted to t his ta sk was io niza t io n cha mber de ve loped a nd co nst r ucted b y A. Co mpto n in 1934. I n USSR t he mea s ure me nts of cos mic ra y flux wit h p urpo se to st ud y its var iat io ns st arted in 1936 b y Yu. G. S ha fe r in the Yak utsk peda go gica l inst it ute wit h us ing t he indepe nd e nt ly co nst r ucted io niza t io n cha mber ­ e lec tro mete r. These work s ha ve bee n broke n b y t he wor ld war, in whic h Yu.G. S ha fer we nt t hro ugh t he fight ing co urse fro m Sta lingr ad to Be r lin, a nd he reco vered t he me as ure me nts o f cos mic ra ys in 1947 in Yak utsk I nst it ute o f Space P hys ics and Ae ro no mie via co nst r uct io n o f io nizat io n c ha mber ASK. By t his ins tr ume nt t he ne twork o f st at io ns o ver t he who le te rr itor y o f USS R wa s eq uipped. Be for e a nd d ur ing t he I nter na t io na l Geop hys ic a l Year (1957) t he who le wo r ld ne two rk o f cos mic ra y s tat io ns was eq uipped by ne ut ro n mo nitors de ve lop ed by J. S imp so n in 1948. Suc h eq uip me nts were insta lled a lso in USSR, a mo ng t he m e. g. in I ZMI RAN (Tro itsk, nea r Mosco w), in Apat it y (Po lar Geop hys ica l I ns t it ute ) where t he meas ure me nt is cont inuing unt il pres e nt. O ne o f NMs ope rat ing in Russ ia unt il no w is see n in F igure 8.

Fig.8. Ne ut ro n mo nito r in Yak utsk Neutro n mo nitor (NM) co ns is ts o f t he gro up o f propor t io na l co unters. The re are used two typ es o f co unters, na me ly t hos e filled wit h t he gas inc lud ing a high co nce ntra t io n o f t he isotope 10 B or wit h 3 He. The counter s are surro unded b y t he modera tor ser ving to s low down t he ne ut ro ns be fo re e nte r ing t he co unter a nd a lso to r e f le ct lo w e ner gy ne utro ns. The modera tor is inser ted into t he lead p rod ucer s urro und ed b y t he o ut er modera tor ­ re flec tor. This is re ject ing unwa nted low e ner gy e xter na l e vapora t io n ne utro ns prod uced in t he loca l s urro und ing. Dur ing t he years t he ne ut ro n mo nito r co ns tr uc t io n wa s c ha nged. First t he I GY mo nito rs wer e used a nd in so me p la ces t he y are used unt il no w. For t hat


one t he mod erato r a nd re fle ctor mater ia l is para ffin. I n 1964 t he ne two rk o f ne utro n mo nito rs wit h lar ge r co unt ing rate, t he s upe r mo nitors (NM64), rep laced in ma ny p laces the or igina l I GY NMs. The net work o f NM64 in USSR was do ne und er leaders hip o f S.N. Ver no v a nd ma in ro le in t he co nst r uct io ns be lo ngs to N.N. Kapus t in, t he e nginee r in Pola r Geop hys ica l I nst it ute. The NM64 mo nitor has a lo w de ns it y po lye t hyle ne mod erato r a nd re flec tor. The d iffer e nces ar e a lso in geo me tr y a nd t ubes. Mo re abo ut ne utro n mo nito rs ca n be fo und e. g. in [34 ]. I mpor ta nt ar e high mo unta in NMs ha ving higher s tat ist ics. O ne o f t he m wa s co nst r ucted at Lo mnick Ù s t Ìt (2634 m abo ve sea le ve l, High Tatr a mo unta ins, r un b y I EP SAS, o ne o f the a ut hor s (KK) is PI o f it s ince 1982) d ur ing IGY as a co ntr ib ut io n o f C zec ho s lo vak phys ic is ts to I GY act ivit y. It is opera t ing unt il now (da ta at http :/ / ne utro nmo nitor. ta3.sk). Let us me nt io n j ust o ne res ult : s ince 1950es t here was a ss ump t io n t hat so lar p roto ns acce lera ted to high e ner gies and interac t ing wit h re s id ua l so lar at mosp here ca n prod uce ne utro ns whic h ca n be detected e ve n at t he Ea rt h' s orb it. Aft er 30 yea rs, d ur ing t he so lar flare o n J une 3, 1982, the inc rease cor respo nd ing o f so lar ne ut ro ns at t wo high a lt it ude NMs in ce nt ra l Europ e, na me ly a t J ungfra ujoc h a nd at Lo mnick Ù s t Ìt, ha ve bee n o bser ved in co inc id e nce wit h sa te llit e mea s ure me nts o f incre ased flux o f high e ne r gy ga mma ra ys reported b y E. L. Chupp. High sta t is t ica l ac urrac y o f mea s ure me nts (5 min reso lut io n at that t ime) a t Lo mnick Ù st Ìt co ntr ib uted to t hat find ing [35 ]. Se lec ted res ults ob ta ined wit h use o f t ha t NM ca n be fo und in [36]. 2.2.2. SCR obs e rve d on ba lloo ns . Meas ure me nt o f SC R o n ba lloo ns are fi lli ng t he e ne r gy ra nge (100 - 1000 Me V) be twee n that obse r ved b y gro und bas ed de vices a nd t he meas ure me nt s o n sat e llite s a nd space probes. F irst obser va t io ns o f SC R in t he str atosp he re were re gister ed indep e nde nt ly in US, M inneapo lis, For t Churc hill a nd in USSR, M ur ma nsk, in 1958. Re gular meas ure me nt s in stra tosp her e in USSR s tart ed in 1957 by t he gro up o f A.N. Charak hc hya n in M oscow ( Do lgop r ud nyj ), in t he vic init y o f M ur ma nsk and ep izod ica lly in Yak utsk a nd Tixie ( Yu.G. S ha fe r, V.D. Soko lo v, A.N. Noviko v), as we ll as in S ime iz, Crimea (Step a nya n). La ter, s ince 1962, t he re gular flights o f rad ioso nds be ga n in Apat it y (LLL, o ne o f t he a ut hor s). Me as ure me nts ha ve bee n co nd ucted d ur ing s hor t t ime fl ights on r ubbe r ba lloo ns b y rad ioso nds wit h use o f t wo Ge ige r co unt ers ; a s hort p ulse wa s t ra ns mit ted to Ear t h in t he case o f s ingle d etec tor co ut, lo nge r p ulse mea nt t he co inc ide nce in t wo co unt ers. Be twee n the counter s t here was me ta llic scr ee n for t he r e gis tra t io n o f c har ged pa rt ic les in two ene r gy cha nne ls. The need le o f t he baro grap h inter r upted t he tra ns miss io n o n se ve n contacts ­ ser ving as meas ure me nt o f re s id ua l pres s ure o f a ir abo ve t he ba llo n. F igure 9 sho ws t he sc he me o f rad ioso nd RK - 2 o f A.N. C harak hc hya n us ing va lve s, whic h was later rep laced b y se mico nd ucto rs a t a ll de vices o f re gular mea s ure me nts in Mo scow, M ir nyj a nd Apat it y. F igure 10 s ho ws t he re s ults o f me as ure me nt ­ a lt it ude pro file in t he co inc ide nce c ha nne l d ur ing fo ur so la r flar es wit h SC R e miss io n. F igure 11 s ho ws t he mo me nt b e fore t he la unc h o f rad ioso nd o f co s mic ra ys in Ap at it y obse r vator y.


Fig.9. Elect ro nic sc he me o f t he e xpe r ime nt meas ur ing cos mic r a ys o n rad ioso nd.


Fig.10. Alt it ude pro file (sca le in min- 1) o f t he co unt rat e o f co inc ide nce p ulses o f two GM t ube s o n rad io so nds d ur ing fo ur d if fere nt SCR e ve nt s.


Fig.11. Acade mic ia n B. M. Pontecor vo vis it ing t he la unc h s ite o f rad ioso nds in Apat it y befo re o ne o f t he la unc hes. Alo ng wit h t he meas ure me nt s o f SC R desc r ibed s hor t ly abo ve, t he re gular str atosp he r ic meas ure me nt s o f cos mic ra ys are r un wit h t he p urpo se to c heck t he cos mic ra y va r ia t io ns at d iffere nt dep t hs in t he a t mosp here b y t he gro up in P hys ica l I ns t it ute o f Rus s ia n Acade my o f Sc ie nces, Mosco w ( G.V. Ba zile vska ya a nd Yu. I. Sto zhko v). F igure 12 sho ws t hese me as ure me nts [37, 38].


Fig.12. Te mpor a l p ro file o f cos mic ra y inte ns it y meas ured o ver M ur ma nsk s ince 1957 at d iffere nt dept hs o f t he a t mo sp here [37, 38 ]. 2.2.3. SCR obs e rve d on s ate lli te s and s pace pro be s . In USSR, abo ve me nt io ned S.N. Ve r no v fo unded t he ser vice o f stead y mo nitor ing o f cos mic ra ys in t he upper la yer s o f t he a t mo sp here ­ da ily la unc hes o f t he sa me t ype o f device in Mosco w, Apat it y a nd so met ime s a lso in t he so ut he r n par t o f t he co unt r y (re gio n o f Alma- Ata). Alo ng wit h t ha t, d ur ing eac h flight o f t he sat e llite s whe re it wa s poss ib le to p ut t he sc ie nt ific de vice meas ur ing cos mic ra ys, s uc h d e vice was inst a lled o n board. By t his wa y t he d etec t io n o f so lar a nd ga lac t ic cos mic ra ys wa s co nd uc ted d ur ing a ll flight s to Ve nus a nd Mar s, as we ll as d ur ing t he flights o f se ve ra l interp la neta r y stat io ns Zo nd. Espec ia lly s uccess ful was t he flight o f Ve nera - 4, whe n t he meas ure me nt o f cos mic ra ys was do ne o ver t he who le ro ute. At t ha t t ime was t he pe r iod o f e nha nced so lar act ivit y (1967) a nd de vices obse r ved la r ge numb er o f so lar e ve nts. Dur ing t he s ubseq ue nt flight s to Ve nus t he y we re do ne ma ny meas ure me nt s, howe ve r, flight o f Ve ner a - 4 was mos t impre ss ive beca use it wa s fir st rea lly s ucces ful o ne acco mpa nied b y obta ining o f intere st ing info r ma t io n o ve r lo ng t ime per iod inc lud ing t ha t o f t he la nd ing o n Ve nus.


Fig. 13. F luxe s o f part ic les fro m a co up le o f so la r flares d ur ing J uly- August 1967 accord ing to mea s ure me nt o f ins tr ume nt AMS o nboard Ve nera - 4. Uppe r c ur ve s ind icate the a nisotrop y o f p roto ns >1 MeV. Thick line is proto n flux fro m t he S un, t hin is toward t he S un.


In major it y o f e ve nts t he pa rt ic le inc rease s at re lat ive ly lo w e ner gy were not inte nse. Thus, t he y we re obser vab le o nly awa y fro m t he ma gnetosp here, not ins ide it. Espec ia lly sate llit es wit h lo w inc linat io n d id not see t he m beca use o f geo ma gnet ic fie ld filte r ing. Onboard Ve ne ra- 4 proto ns a nd hea vier nuc le i were dete cted wit h use o f t wo ide nt ica l se mico nt ucto r detec tors look ing into oppos ite d irect io ns, a nd t hus a llo wing to obser ve part ic a l spat ia l a nisot rop y. I f t he par t ic les are e mit ted b y Sun, its mo t io n is d irec ted by the fie ld lines o f IMF appro xima ted b y Arc himedea n sp ira l (wit h a ngle abo ut 45 to t he sunward d ir ect io n a t 1 AU). Thes e fie ld lines are no t tota lly s moo t h ­ t he y are supe r imposed by t he irre gular it ies o f va r io us d ime ns io ns, and c har ged par t ic les are scatte red o n t he irre gular it ie s, so me t imes c ha nging its d irec t io n o f ve lo c it y towa rds t he oppos ite o ne. Due to s uc h scat ter ing d ur ing t he le ngt hy sta y in IMF, t he p art ic le s "fo r get " the ir init ia l d irec t io n, a nd t he ir a ngular d ist r ib ut io n beco me s to be c lose to t he isot rop ic one. Thus t he a niso trop y is in s uc h case s eq ua l to zero. The flight o f spa ce probe Ve nera4 has s hown t hat s uc h s it uat io n is me t re lat ive ly freq ue nt ly, ho we ver, a t t he sa me t ime t he devices look ing to ward t he Sun obs er ved o ver se vera l ho urs muc h higher fluxes o f part ic les in co mpar iso n wit h t hos e lo ok ing in t he oppos ite d irect io n (F ig. 13). This mea ns that in t he give n e ve nts t he S un is e mit t ing o ver lo ng t ime, so met ime s up to t he da y, rat her la r ge fluxes o f part ic les, a nd t he fie ld lines o f I MF co nt ro lling t he ir mot io n were suffic ie nt ly s moot h, wit ho ut sca tte r ing, so t hat t here was lo w number o f par t ic les flo wing in oppos ite d irec t io n. S uc h p ict ure cor respo nds to high pos it ive a nisotrop y o f par t ic les fluxes fro m t he so lar flare s. Suc h t ype o f e ve nt s lat er ha ve bee n obser ved rat he r o fte n, the y obta ined t he na me o f e ve nts wit ho ut scat ter ing, ho we ve r Ve ner a - 4 was t he first o ne space apparat us whic h obs er ved t his p he no me na. Now it beca me c lear t ha t a niso trop y o f so lar flare p art ic le s in inte rp la ne tar y spa ce is de ve lop ing in ge ne ra l q uite r e gular ly. F irst the a nisot rop y is s uff ic ie nt ly high a nd it has d irec t io n fro m t he S un a lo ng t he interp la net ar y fie ld line, la ter it is dec reas ing a nd beco mes to be d irec ted rad ia lly fro m the S un, a nd fina lly t he a ngula r d ist r ib ut io n is c ha nged to t he fo r m wit h ma ximum flu x perpe nd ic ular to fie ld lines, whic h is co nnected wit h t he dr ift o f c ha r ged par t ic les in t he crossed e lect r ic a nd ma gne t ic fie ld (e lect r ic fie ld or igina ted d ue to mo t io n o f t he ma gnet ic fie ld line to get her wit h t he so la r wind p las ma). Previo us flight s aro und Ve nus d id not give rep ly to t he q uest io n abo ut e xis te nce o f t he trapped rad iat io n in its vic init y. Ve nera- 4 has s ho wn t ha t near Ve nus t he re is no trapped rad iat io n e ve n at t he s ma lles t d ista nc es to its s ur face : whe n t he de vice was app roac hing the sur face t he rad iat io n was not increas ing b ut e ve n decreas ing in ac corda nce wit h geo metr y (beca use o f scree ning b y t he so lid bod y o f Ve nus ). This importa nt r es ult is in agr ee me nt wit h t he lack o f no t ic eab le ma gne t ic fie ld o f Ve nus meas ured b y t he tea m o f IZM IRAN dur ing t he sa me miss io n. Data fro m Ve nera- 4 ha ve s ho wn t ha t t he S un d isposes wit h lar ge d iver s it y bo t h in ge ne rat io n o f c har ged pa rt ic le s as we ll a s in crea t io n o f co nd it io ns in int erp la netar y space contro lling t he mo t io n o f t he par t ic les in t he he liosp her e. Those par t ic le fluxes whic h are obser ved o n t he Ea rt h's orb it o r in a no t her po int o f space, a re de ter mined b y bo t h t he cond it io ns o f t he so ur ce ( so lar flares ) a nd b y pec ulia r it ies o f int erp la netar y med ium, thro ugh whic h t he y pas s o n t he ir wa y fro m t he S un to t he per ip her y o f he liosp here. Propaga t io n o f pa rt ic les b r ings into t he ir fluxes s ignific a nt "cor rect io ns ": at t he Ear t h's orb it we obser ve not t he ide nt ica l te mp ora l p ro file o f t he fluxes o f acc e lera ted part ic les; the e ne r gy spec tra for med a t t he s ite o f t he ir ge nera t io n is c ha nged; par t o f t he


acce lera ted pa rt ic les is not e scap ing fro m t he S un etc. Let us t reat e. g. t he ins ta nt ge ne rat io n and o ut flo w of par t ic les fro m so la r sur face. I n t he s imp lest case o f d iffus io na l propagat io n o f par t ic les, o n t he Ear t h's o rb it t he re wil l be obs er ved t he pro file e xte nded in t ime a nd so ca lled d iffus io na l wa ve (F igure 14 ) : first par t ic les o f high e ne r gy ar r ive (higher ve loc it y), la ter lowe r e ne r gy par t ic les etc. Co mp ar iso n o f t he ob ser ved te mpo ra l pro files o f pa rt ic le fluxes wit h t he co mp uted o nes a ss uming t he d iffus io n s ho ws t hat so met imes o n t he S un rea lly takes p lace ins ta nt a neo us r e leas e o f pa rt ic le s propa ga t ing furt he r d iffus io na lly, as it is e. g. in t he fla re o n Nove mber 22, 1977 a nd in t he co up le o f other flares.

Fig. 14. Sc he ma o f d iffus io na l wa ve o f so lar proto ns ­ te mpora l pro fi les o f va r io us ene r gy proto n fluxes at 1 AU fo r t he imp uls ive acce le rat io n at t he S un at 1 AU. Espec ia lly for st ud y o f SCR a nd in pa rt ic ular for d e ve lop me nt o f t he met hod o f pro gno s is of powe r ful so lar fla res, represe nt ing est ima tes o f rad ia t io n ha zard in space flight , t here were co nst r ucted sa te llit es Pro gno z whic h sta rted to b e la unc hed in 1972. I n tab le 2 t here is bas ic info r ma t io n abo ut t he t he sa te llit es Pro gno z la unc hed in USSR.


Tab le 2. Date s o f la unc h a nd o rb it s o f t he sa te llit es ma gnetosp he re. Sate llite Date o f Init ia l apo gee la unc h a lt it ude (103 km) Progno z- 1 14.04.1972 200 Progno z- 2 29.06.1972 200 Progno z- 3 15.02.1973 200 Progno z- 4 22.12.1975 200 Progno z- 5 25.11.1976 200 Progno z- 6 22.09.1977 200 Progno z- 7 30.10.1978 200 Progno z- 8 25.12.1980 200 Progno z- 9 01.07.1983 720 Progno z- 10 26.04.1985 200

Pro gno z ­ meas ur e me nts o ut o f t he Orbita l per iod (days) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 27 4 Time o f act ive operat io n ( mo nt hs) 4,4 5,5 12,5 2,5 7,8 5,3 6,8 8,8 8,0 9,3

We must a gree t hat t he ma in task o f t he Pro gno z proj ect ­ to obta in rep ly o n t he q ues t io n about t he ca uses o f so lar fla res a nd to e labor ate t he me t hod o f t he pred ict io n o f so lar flare s wit h pot e nt ia l o f rad ia t io n ha zards ­ was no t ac hie ved. Ho we ver, it ga ve a n opport unit y to mo ve for ward in t he und ers ta nd ing o f so me ac ce le rat io n proces ses a nd espec ia lly o f p ropa gat io n o f acc e ler ated pa rt ic les in interp la neta r y med ium, in t he researc h o f rec urre nt p art ic le fluxe s a nd ot he r p he no me na. S umma r y o f t he res ults o f t he expe r ime nts ca n b e fo und in p roceed ings [39, 40]. Be low we list so me ba s ic r es ults obta ined wit h he lp o f sate ll ites P ro gno z. Prot ons are accel erat ed i n all fl ares. It was s hown t ha t in a ll so lar fla res t he re were acce lera ted e lect ro ns o f re lat ive ly low e ner gy ( > 40 keV), as we ll as proto ns (o n sate llit es P ro gno z t he meas ure me nt s o f pro to ns were > 1 Me V). This fact e nab led to exc lude fro m te r mino lo gy t he ter m "e lec tro n flare s " whic h s upposed t he e xis te nce o f flare s wit h e xc lus ive acce lerat io n o f e lec tro ns. Unt il t he flight o f sa te llit e Pro gno z t his opinio n was wide ly ac cepted a nd it was ass umed t ha t par t ic le acce lera t io n in s uc h flares is due to be tatro n mec ha nis m wit h lo w e ffic ie nc y for acce lera t io n o f hea vy par t ic les. It was s ho wn t ha t fo r a ll flares de tec ted o n Pro gno z sate ll ites t he e lect ro n fluxes inc lud ing the weake st o ne s we re acco mpa nied b y p roto ns [41]. F ur t her resea rc h s howed t ha t t he ene r gy spec tra o f e lec tro ns a nd pro to ns are s imila r, if repre se nted as dep e nde nce o n kinet ic e ner gy o f par t ic les whic h req uires co mp le te ly d iffe re nt mec ha nis m o f acce lera t io n tha n beta tro n o ne. Coherent propagati on of part i cl es. Unus ua l mode of t he fast prop a gat io n of par t ic les was d isco ve red : in t he na rro w angular inter va l near t he fie ld line co nnected to t he re gio n of flare, t he e lectro ns are propa gat ing p ract ica lly wit ho ut sca tte r ing, i.e. wit h conse r vat io n of a ngula r d istr ib ut io n a lo ng t he lo ng pa rt of t he ir pat h fro m S un to Ea rt h. This ass ures high ve loc it y of t he ir mot io n t hro ugh t he space. Dur ing t he p ropa gat io n s uc h "hudd le " of pa rt ic le s ge nera tes r ad io wa ve e miss io n of t he t yp e II I, for whic h t he


freq ue nc y d epe nds o n t he de ns it y of med ium whe re t he p ropa gat io n takes p lace. This mod e o f propa ga t io n was na med co he re nt. O n Pro gno z sa te llit es t he co here nt propa ga t io n was obse r ved a lso for pro to ns [ 42,43]. To detec t t he co here nt propa ga t io n o f par t ic les is d iff ic ult, s ince to peg a t t he t he nar row bea m o f t he pa rt ic le s has low probab ilit y. S uc h e ve nt o n t he Ea rt h' s s ur face takes p lace just 10 ­ 20 min, a nd s ubseq ue nt ly t he b ea m flowing o ver t he spac e ve hic le is st retc hed a lo ng t he fie ld line o nly at 0.5 ­ 1.0 AU. Near t he S un t he bea m has e ve n s ma ller dime ns io ns, beca use as per propa ga t io n in space its "d ifflue nce " takes p lace. Fur t her more, for t he e xis te nce o f t he e ne r get ic pa rt ic le "hudd le s " t he y a re nece ssar y spec ific co nd it io ns in space, s uffic ie nt s moot hness o f t he ma gne t ic fie ld a nd its fo c us ing in t he ec lip t ic p la ne. Energy spect ra of prot ons i n i nt erpl anet ary space duri ng qui et Sun. In t he abse nc e o f inte ns ive part ic le fluxes acc e ler ated at t he Sun, i.e. in per iods o f q uie t Sun, t here are anywa y no n- int e ns ive fluxes o f e ne r get ic part ic le s in inte rp la ne tar y spa ce. The or igin o f suc h pa rt ic le fluxes was no t dete r mined for lo ng t ime. Be for e t he la unc h o f Pro gno z sate llit es t he e ne r gy spec tra o f pro to ns a nd o f ot her pa rt ic les was k nown j us t abo ve 500 keV/ nuc l. I f o ne ar t ific ia lly e xt rapo la tes e ner gy spect ra o f pro to ns fro m 500 keV to wards lo wer e ne r gies (F igure 15), s uc h spect ra imp inges on t he so lar wind. Thus, it was nat ura l to ass ume t hat t he obse r ved sp ectr a o f pro to ns a nd hea vier p art ic le s is j ust co nt inuat io n ­ a ta il ­ o f t he so lar wind pa rt ic les. The no nt he r ma l c harac ter o f t his ta il was as s umed because wit h us ing t he Ga uss ia n d is tr ib ut io n o f so lar wind pro to ns wit h meas ured te mper at ure (104 K) t he pro to n flux must decrea se so s harp ly wit h ener gy incr ease t ha t it is impo ss ib le to spe ak abo ut a ny a gree me nt wit h t he obse r ved pro to n flux a t e ner gy 0,5 1,0 eV ­ t he d iffere nce will be o f se ve ra l or deres. I n s uc h cas e in e ne r gy spect ra o f part ic les d ur ing q uiet t ime t here must be o ne mo re mini mum in t he e ner gy ra nge abo ut 30 ­ 100 keV. It wo uld be intere st ing to find s uc h mini mum, its e xiste nc e wo uld ha ve pr inc ipa l imp lic at io n beca use it wo uld separ ate fluxes o f d iffere nt na t ure ­ ha ving diffe re nt or igin.


Fig. 15. Ener gy spect ra o f pro to ns at 1 AU d ur ing q uiet S un acco rd ing to under sta nd ing in 1970e s ( le ft) a nd at prese nt (r ight). 1 ­ sola r wind, 2 ­ supr at her ma l part ic les, 3 ­ e ne r get ic par t ic les o f so la r or igin, 4 ­ ga la ct ic cos mic ra ys. One o f t he tasks o f t he sa te llit e Pro gno z- 3 co ns isted in meas ure me nts o f part ic le flux at ene r gies a s c lose a s poss ib le to t he e ner gies o f so lar wind par t iic le s. The e xpe r ime nt cond uc ted a llo wed to meas ure spect ra dur ing t he mos t quiet per iods wit hin t he act ive inter va l o f P ro gno z- 3. Ener gy spect ra wa s mea s ured do wn a lmost to e ner gy 30 k eV a nd no c a ver n o r mini ma o f pro to n flux was obser ved. Pres e nt ly it is c lear ly co nfir med t hat there are no peculia r it ies in t he ene r gy spectra o f par t ic les in t he e ner gy ra nge be twee n the ener get ic par t ic les (<1 ) a nd so la r wind. For toda y t he e ner gy spe ctra o f p roto ns meas ured in q uie t t ime pe r iod o f t he S un is s hown in F igure 15 (r ight ). Int erpl anet ary medi um duri ng peri ods of qui et Sun . Stud ie s o f va r ia t io ns o f so lar part ic le flux s ho wed t ha t int erp la netar y spa ce in eac h give n sec t io n o f t he t ime has so me preva le nt (c harac ter ist ic) sta te, to whic h it is te nd ing to reco ve r a fte r va r io us t ypes o f dist urb a nces. This pre va le nt s tate is contro lled b y t he ma gne t ic fie ld o f t he S un a nd by so lar wind, whic h in ge ne ra l are no t c ha nging ver y freq ue nt ly. I n a vera ge it is pos s ib le to ass ume t ha t d ur ing t he t ime o f lo w so la r ac t ivit y t he st r uct ur e o f t he fie lds a nd o f so lar wind re ma in stab le d ur ing 1- 2 or mor e so lar ro tat io ns. The s tr uct ure o f inte rp la ne tar y med ium is bo und to var io us ac t ive re gio ns o n t he S un, a ffect ing t hus t he prope rt ies o f t he interp la net ar y space in t he so lid a ngle crea ted b y t he ma gne t ic fie ld lines o ut flo wing fro m


the act ive re gio ns. The s tr uc t ure aro und t he S un is bo und to its s ur fa ce a nd it is rota t ing a lo ng wit h t ha t. This is we ll see n acco rd ing to so lar par t ic le flux a t var io us t ime sca les. Accord ing to d ata fro m Pro gno z- 1 a nd Pro gno z- 2 t he fine st r uct ure o f inte rp la ne tar y med ium was s hown. On Pro gno z sate ll ite s it was re gister ed a lso lo nger t ime q uas i- s tat io nar y st r uct ure o f interp la net ar y med ium. This e mer ges fro m t he ra te o f deca y o f t he so lar par t ic le fluxes assoc ia ted wit h t he flares a fte r reac hing t he d iffus io na l ma xima. The deca y rate is a n indepe nde nt c har acte r is t ic o f t he e xte nt o f d ist urba nce o f IMF a nd o f so lar wind ve loc it y. It was fo und o ut t hat fo r ma jor it y o f so lar pa rt ic le increa ses (>1 MeV) d ur ing 1972 the de ca y corre spo nded to e xpo ne nt ia l la w wit h t he sa me c ha racte r is t ic t ime eq ua l to about 16 ho urs [44 ]. Eve n a fte r lar ge st so lar flares in 1972 whe n interp la net ar y space was d ist urbed d ue to pa ssa ge o f s tro ng s hock wa ves, j ust a fter few da ys a ll cha racte r is t ic s reco vered to its o r igina l sta te a nd t he c harac ter ist ic t ime o f d eca y r ate was aga in abo ut 16 ho urs (F igure 16).

Fig. 16. F luxes o f so lar p roto ns obse r ved o n P ro gno z- 1. Dur ing 70 da ys t he e ight increase s o f SCR were obse r ved, ha ving e xpo ne nt ia l pro file o f deca y (e ne r gy 1 eV) wit h a lmost ide nt ica l c ha racte r is t ic t imes = 16.5 ho ur s. This s ho ws t he e vide nce of lo ng t ime pe r iod ( mo re t ha n t wo so la r ro tat io ns) sta t io na r y s tate o f inte rp la ne tar y med ium aro und t he S un. The deca y p hase o f par t ic le flux a fter t he ma ximum in SCR s us ta ins t he infor mat io n abo ut the so la r wind ve loc it y, d is t urba nc e o f I MF a nd ot her par a me ters o f interp la neta r y med ium. The e xte nt o f d is t urba nce o f IMF is o ne o f t he ma in fac tors o f t he st ate o f interp la net ar y med ium c ha ract er ized b y t he d iffus io n coe ffic ie nt o f part ic les in t he med ium, a nd t he so lar wind ve loc it y det er mines t he fo r m o f te mpora l p ro file o f par t ic le flux, t he rate o f its inc rease a nd o f deca y a fter ma ximum. Var io us mod e ls o f pa rt ic le p ropa gat io n lead to var io us laws o f t he d eca y pro fi le in t he la te sta ge o f t he e ve nt. Te mpora l pro fi le o f par t ic le flux in so lar e ve nts ha s a c harac ter ist ic fo r m. On t he Eart h's o rb it fo r so lar e ve nt co nnec ted wit h a s ingle fla re, t he p art ic le flux


has a ra t her fas t o nset, re ac hing t he ma ximum a nd s ubseq ue nt ly decrea s ing down to t he le ve l be fore t he flare. Ther e are met rat he r fr eq ue nt ly t he e ve nts wit h p ic t ure de scr ibed we ll be t he d iffus io n appro ximat io n. I n s uc h case s, ass uming t he imp ulse so urc e o f t he part ic les ( t ime o f ge ne rat io n is muc h le ss t ha n t ha t o f propa gat io n to t he s ite o f obser vat io n), t he te mpora l p ro file J( t) in its deca y pha se has a power- law c hara cter a nd it is propo rt io na l to t-3 /2 . In t he c ase o f pro lo nged inject io n, it is neces sar y to ass ume t he func t io n o f pa rt ic le so urce lead ing t hus to t he pro lo ngat io n o f t he e ve nt, ho we ver, it is ne gligib ly re flec ted o n t he lat e sta ge o f t he e ve nt. I f t he influe nce o f t he so la r wind is es se nt ia l t he co nvec t ive o ut flow o f pa rt ic les a nd t he ir ad iabat ic coo ling ma y be impo rta nt. The n t he deca y for m is appro xima ted b y J (t)~e -t/ [45- 48]. Power la w s uffic ie nt ly we ll work s for high e ner gy pa rt ic les ( > 100 Me V). For part ic les o f lowe r e ne r gy ( < 10 ) t he co nvect ive o ut flo w p rocess be gins to p la y muc h more importa nt ro le, a nd t he deca y is expo ne nt ia l. It t ur ned out t hat in major it y o f so lar e ve nt s t he fluxe s of pro to ns wit h lo wer e ner gy ( < 10 MeV ) ha ve e xpo ne nt ia l decay, while for pa rt ic le s wit h e ner gy 30 - 60 MeV t he co nvec t ive o ut flo w is obser ved too, ho we ver le ss pro no unced. O fte n t he part ic le propa ga t io n is acco mpa nied by va r io us processes o f add it io na l acce le rat io n whic h lead s to t he c ha nge o f "s moot h" te mpo ra l pro file and t he n deca y ca n no t be described b y a ny s ingle fo r m la w. Apar t fro m suffic ie nt ly freq ue nt obs er vat io ns o f t he e ve nts wit h e xpo ne nt ia l deca ys, in ma ny st ud ies unt il no w t he re is not pa id corre spo nd ing a tte nt io n to t ha t for m o f dec rease o f int e ns it y. I f in t he deca y p hase o f t he so la r flare inc rease t he co nvect ive o ut flow o f part ic le s a nd ad iabat ic coo ling are predo mina nt over t he d iffus io n, fo r t he cha ract er ist ic t ime of deca y the fo llowing re lat io n wa s fo und [45 ] : = 3r/2V(2 + ), where V is so la r wind speed, - inde x o f e ne r gy spe ctra o f part ic les, r ­ d is ta nce o f t he s ite o f ob ser va t io n to t he Sun, 2 for no nre la t ivist ic p artc les. The per for med a na lys is ind ica tes t hat in t he co ns iderab le fr act io n o f e ve nts ( up to 50%), whe n V r e ma ined cons ta nt d ur ing t he who le deca y p has e, is sat is fac tor y we ll descr ibed b y t he for m abo ve. Rea l meas ure me nt s are carr ied o n ne ar t he Eart h in d iffe re nt flux t ubes d ue to ro tat io n of the S un, where t he ma gnet ic co nd it io ns a re us ua lly d iffere nt. I n so me cases t he stab il it y o f part ic le fluxe s a lo ng t he lo ngit udes is obser ved o nly o ver s hor t durat io n. I n suc h case s t he two de vices p laced wit hin a s ma ll a ngular d is ta nce (so me t imes 10 ), obser ve e nt ire ly diffe re nt fluxes. At t he sa me t ime, re la t ive ly freq ue nt ly, t he re ar e appear ing t he sa me cond it io ns for par t ic le propa ga t io n, o ve r t he wide la t it ud ina l e xte nt, wha t is co nfir med b y s imulta neo us mea s ure me nts a t d iffe re nt space de vices. I n s uc h ca ses t he par t ic le fluxes a re cons ta nt o ve r t he lar ge a ngular e xte nt s (e ve n up to >100 ) [49]. The co nd uc ted lo ng te r m st ud ies, inc lud ing a lmos t t hree full so la r ac t ivit y c yc les, ha ve sho wn t hat for re markab le fract io n ( a lmo st ha lf o f t he so la r e ner get ic par t ic les e ve nts ), t he va lue for e ne r gies 1 Â 10 Me V is eq ua l to 16 - 20 ho urs, whic h is in a gree me nt wit h t he above fo r mula for t he t yp ica l va lues o f t he para mete rs inc luded. This mea ns t hat a lso interp la net ar y med ium d ur ing t he p er iod s wit h t he e ve nts o f so lar pa rt ic le e m is s io n, is in the sta te co rrespo nde nt to t hat va lue o f . Aro und 20 % o f e ve nts ha ve lar ge r va lue reac hing so met ime s 50 ho urs or more [50]. Recurrent fl uxes of sol ar part i cl es. F light s o f t he firs t t wo sate ll ites Pro gno z we re he ld in the per iod o f dec rease o f so lar ac t ivit y, a nd t he de vices o nboa rd t hes e sat e llite s o fte n


obser ved r ec urre nt fluxes o f part ic les, i.e. fluxes pers ist ing in interp la net ar y space o ve r lo ng t ime, a nd as t he y were ro tat ing to get he r wit h t he S un. The y we re estab lis hed se vera l diffe r ing ser ies o f s uc h t ype o f fluxes, obta ined t he ir cha ract er ist ics a nd it wa s sho wn t ha t a part o f t he m is co nnec ted wit h t he S un. Most inte rest ing was t he co nc lus io n: if t he act ive regio n e mit s rec ur re nt fluxes o f pa rt ic les, t he e ner gy is no t acc umula ted w it hin t he re gio n, and co nseq ue nt ly t here is no need to re lea se s uper fluo us e ne r gy by t he e xp los ive ma nne r. This mea ns t hat t he so lar flare s are no t tak ing p lace t here [51]. Fur t her s t ud y o f rec ur re nt fluxes has s ho wn t ha t t he y are most freq ue nt ly co nne cted wit h so called coro na l ho les ­ re gio ns wit h lowe r le ve l o f e miss io n in so ft X ra ys, whic h are a lso t he s it es o f or igin o f high sp eed so la r wind. The lo nger inter va ls o f s tat io nar y co nd it io ns in int erp la netar y space ca n be fo und d ur ing the per iod s o f lo wer so lar ac t ivit y via t he rec urre nt fluxe s o f lo w e ner gy par t ic les, ha ving the spat ia l str uct ure sa ved o ver t he lo ng t ime. Rec ur re nt fluxes so me t imes e xis t ove r seve ra l rota t io ns o f t he S un, what wa s obser ved not o nce a lso o n s ate llit es P ro gno z [52 ]. The lo nge st o ne was ob ser ved d ur ing 26 so lar rota t io ns in t he d ec lining p has e o f t he so la r cyc le 21 53]. In add it io n, it t ur ns up t ha t no t o nly rec urre nt increa ses o f fluxes are obse r ved, b ut a lso rec urre nt mini ma co rota t ing a lo ng wit h t he S un. We na med t hese de ep de xrea ses o f part ic le inte ns it y as "ca nyo ns " (d ue to t he s imi lar it y o f t he spa t ia l st r uct ur e o f fluxe s wit h tho se in t he gro und ca nyo ns). F igure 17, co ns tr uc ted wit h us ing t he da ta o f sa te llit e IMP 8 and o f t he P io ne er- 11 and Vo ya ger- 1 a nd - 2 space probes is il lust rat ing t ha t [54].

Fig. 17. Projec t io n o f t he spa t ia l str uc t ure s, bordered b y sp ira ls o f IMF a nd co mpr is ing the dec reased fluxe s o f lo w e ne r gy p roto ns ( Ep~1 ), o nto e c lip t ic p la ne. Fro m le ft to r ight : 22.08. ­ 04.09.1978; 29.10. ­ 09.11.1979; 06.12. ­ 23.12.1979; 05.01. ­ 23.01.1981. The sp ira ls were ca lc ulat ed acco rd ing to so la r wind ve loc it ies meas ured o n IMP- 8 at t he be ginning a nd at t he e nd o f int er va ls wit h "ca ve r ns " ­ inter va ls wit h decreased inte ns it y o f proto ns. Suc h re gio ns o f mini mum fluxe s co- rota t ing wit h t he Sun ar ise d ue to t he fa ct t hat in t he who le he liosp he re t he re e xists t he co nst a nt, back gro und fluxe s o f par t ic les a t so me mini mum le ve l. Dur ing pe r iods o f high so lar ac t ivit y t he back gro und fluxes are over lapped a nd to obs er ve t he m is pos s ib le o nly d ur ing q uiet Sun per iod s, b ut a lso t hat is lim ited to t he ob ser va t io ns in so me o f t he secto rs o f sp ace s ur ro und ing t he S un. Radi ati on dose from sol ar fl ares. For t wo po wer ful so lar flare s, na me ly August, 4 a nd 7, 1972, it was de ter mined t he rad iat io n dos e in interp la net ar y space us ing Pro gno z sate ll ite


meas ure me nt [55 ]. The do se out o f t he Ear t h's ma gneto sp here was s ignific a nt ly higher tha n t hat ob ser ved o n Ear t h's orb it ing sa te llit es. This is impo rta nt for t he inte rp la ne tar y miss io ns as we ll as mis s io ns towa rds t he Moo n. Hi gh energy gamma rays and neut rons f rom sol ar fl ares. I EP SAS s tar ted t he sate ll ite meas ure me nt s o f cos mic r a ys and o f e ne r get ic part ic le s in t he cooperat io n wit h SINP Moscow a nd wit h ot her ins t it utes in t he fra me o f pro gr a m I nte rcos mo s in 1977. Be fore that per iod I EP SAS part ic ipa ted in ma gnetosp her ic e ne r get ic par t ic le st ud ies b y data ana lys is s ince t he flight o f low a lt it ud e sa te llit e IK - 3 in 1971, wit h t he ins tr ume nt cons tr uc ted at C har les U. Pr a gue. This sc ie nt ific d irec t io n was la ter co nt inuing a lso expe r ime nta lly, a nd inc luded t he meas ur e me nts on Pro gno z t yp e sate llit es too (I nte rs hock, I nterba ll). I t co nt r ib ut ed to unders ta nd ing t he mec ha nis ms impo rta nt for id e nt ifica t io n so urces, tra nspo rt a nd losse s o f par t ic les wit hin t he ma gne tosp here as we ll as in t he vic init y o f it s bo undar y re gio ns a s ma gnetopa us e, bow s hock as we ll a s in t he geo ma gnet ic ta il. The se sc ie nt ific task s are out o f scope o f t his re vie w. Sho rt s ummar y unt il 2003 c a n be fo und e. g. in [56], late r re view is in [57]. Aro und 1975 t here was est ab lis hed at I EP SAS a s ma ll e xper ime nta l gro up de ve lop ing e lect ro nics a nd la ter a lso co mp let e de vice s for t he meas ure me nt o f e ner ge t ic part ic les in the inte r va l o f e ner gies we ll abo ve t hose o f so lar wind a nd be lo w t he t yp ica l e ner gies o f cos mic ra ys. I mpor ta nt works in e lec tro nics we re do ne b y J. Rojko ( 2011). One o f t he aut hors (KK) a lo ng wit h t he o r ga niza t io n o f t he me as ure me nts o n sate ll ites, was dea ling wit h data a na lys is a nd it s p hys ica l in te rpre tat io n, to ge t her wit h o t her co llea gue s ( L. J ust 2008, wit h M. S livka a nd ot he rs), in coope rat io n wit h co llea gues in t he inst it ute s o f fo r me r USSR/Russ ia a nd in ot her co untr ie s. This cooperat io n, based on dat a obta ined fro m Russ ia n sate ll ite s, was s igni fica nt ly e nha nced a fte r 1989, by pos s ib il it y to co llabor ate a lso wit h co lle a gues in US, west Europe, Japa n et c. First d e vice for me as ure me nt in space wit h par t ic ipat io n o f IEP S AS wa s SK - 1 deve loped jo int ly wit h Io ffe P hys ico- Tec hnica l I nst it ute in Le ningrad a nd la unc hed in 1977 o n IK 17 sate ll ite. The task wa s to detec t ne utro ns o f so lar or igin in t he vic init y o f Ea rt h. Alt ho ugh so lar ne utro ns were not d etec ted, t his e xper ime nt meas ured in deta il t he flux o f cos mic ra y a lb edo ne utro ns a nd ga mma ra ys at d iffere nt lat it udes [58]. I n co llabora t io n wit h SINP MS U t he de vices SONG were co ns tr uc ted (a t IEP SAS t he e lec tro nic bo x) for detect io n o f high e ner gy ne ut ro ns a nd ga mma ra ys [59]. These de vice s were meas ur ing onboard low a lt it ude po lar orb it ing sa te llit es CORONAS- I (1994) and CORONAS- F (2001 ­ 2005). Espec ia lly prod uc t ive was CORONAS - F mis s io n: t here were de tected seve ra l so la r flares wit h high e ne r gy ga mma ra y e miss io ns, its e ner gy spect ra up to > 100 MeV, as we ll as wit h t he so la r ne ut ro ns ( e. g. [60,61] ), ind icat ing t he acce lerat io n o f proto ns in t he se flares up to ve r y high e ne r gie s a nd pro vid ing infor mat io n abo ut t he intera ct io n o f a cce le rated pro to ns wit h res id ua l so la r at mosp here (prod uct io n o f ne ut ra l pio ns wit h t he ir s ub seq ue nt deca y into t wo ga mma q ua nta o f high e ner gies) a s we ll as sho wing t he t iming o f acce lera t io n whic h is in so me cases see n a s a prec ursor be fore t he onse t o f GLE ( gro und le ve l e ve nts) ob ser ved b y ne utro n mo nito rs [62 ].

3. Concl usi on.


In t he co nc lus io n we re mark t hat pas t 100 yea rs of cos mic ra y re searc h a llo wed to mo ve subs ta nt ia lly in unde rsta nd ing na t ure of cos mic ra ys, in c lar ifying t he cr uc ia l mo me nt s of its ge nera t io n, propa gat io n in t he he lio sp here a nd in Ga la xy, in unders ta nd ing t he ro le of the S un a nd of p la net s for t he for mat io n of rad iat io n co nd it io ns in t he vic init y of t he S un. Apart fro m t he fact t hat s ubs ta nt ia l pro gre ss in space p hys ics a nd cos mic ra y p hys ics was achie ved, t he re is a numbe r o f q ues t io ns whic h are not c lar if ied yet. So me o f t he m a re : For m o f e ne r gy spect ra o f co s mic ra y a t ver y high e ner gies > 10 20 eV; Cha nge o f co mpos it io n wit h c ha nging e ner gy a t > 1017 eV/ nuc l; Dete r minat io n o f co mpos it io n a nd co mpos it io n o f no n- mod ula ted cos mic ra y wit h re lat ive ly lo w e ner gy ( < 10 Ge V) , i.e. in inter ste lla r med ium b e hind t he he liosp he r ic border; Influe nce o f cos mic r a ys o n we at her a nd c lima te o n Eart h; Forecast ing o f t he be ginning o f rad iat io n ha zardo us fla res wit h high flux o f SCR put t ing ob stac les fo r interp la neta r y mot io n o f space te c hno lo gy a nd living o r ga nis ms ;

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