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2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Functions
determine the image determine whether a find the inverse of a find the composite of of a given function; given function is one-one and/or onto ; given one-one function; two given functions.

After working through this section, you should be able to:

2.1 W hat is a function?
In the previous unit we concentrated on real functions--that is, functions whose domains and codomains are subsets of R. You can think of these functions as machines for processing real numbers. For example, the real function defined by f (x) = 1/x can be regarded as a machine that calculates the reciprocals of non-zero real numbers. When 3 is fed into the 1 machine, out comes the number 3 ; when -2 is fed into the machine, out comes - 1 ; and so on. Indeed, any real number in the domain R of f can 2 be processed by the machine to produce a real number in the codomain.

Recall from Subsection 1.1 that R denotes the set of non-zero real numb ers, R -{0}.

Now imagine a machine that accepts an element x from a set A (not necessarily a subset of R), and processes it to produce a unique element f (x) in a set B (again not necessarily a subset of R). By dropping the requirement that the machine processes and produces real numbers, we obtain the following more general definition of a function.

20


Section 2 Functions

Definitions A function f is defined by specifying: · a set A, called the domain of f ; · a set B , called the co domain of f ; · a rule x - f (x) that associates with each element x A a
unique element f (x) B .

The element f (x) is the image of x under f .
Symbolically, we write
f : A - B
x - f (x).
We often refer to a function as a mapping, and say that f maps A to B and x to f (x). Since the domain A and the codomain B are no longer restricted to be sets of real numbers, we can now study many types of function in addition to the real functions that you met in Unit I1. We present a few examples.

Distance function
Functions of the form f : R2 - R can be used to specify quantities associated with points in the plane. For example, the function f : R2 - R (x, y ) - x2 + y
2

gives the distance of each point (x, y ) in the plane from the origin.

Parametr isations
In Unit I1, Section 5, you saw that functions of the form f : I - R2 , where I is an interval of R, can be used to parametrise curves in the plane. For example, the function f :[0, 2] - R2
t - (cos t, sin t)
is a parametrisation of the unit circle.

Transfor mations of the plane
Functions that have a geometric interpretation are often called transformations. Such functions include translations, reflections and rotations of the plane. We now present some simple examples. For each one, we give a diagram which shows the effect of the transformation on the square whose vertices are at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1); part of the square is shaded for clarity.
These typ es of transformation were introduced in Unit I1, Section 1, Frames 10, 18 and 20. You will study more complicated transformations in the Linear Algebra Block.

21


Unit I2 Mathematical language

The transformation f : R2 - R2
(x, y ) - (x +2,y )
is a translation of the plane that shifts (or translates) each point to the right by 2 units.

The transformation f : R2 - R2
(x, y ) - (-x, y )
is a reflection of the plane in the y -axis.

The transformation f : R2 - R2
(x, y ) - (-x, -y )
is a rotation of the plane through about the origin.

Exercise 2.1 For each of the following functions f : R2 - R2 , state whether f is a translation, reflection or rotation of the plane. (a) f (x, y ) = (x +2,y +3) (b) f (x, y ) = (x, -y ) (c) f (x, y ) = (-y, x)
For simplicity, we write f (x, y ) instead of f ((x, y )).

22


Section 2 Functions

Functions on finite sets
It is often useful to consider a function whose domain is a finite set. For example, we can define a function whose domain is the set A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} by f : A - A
x - 9 - x.
When the domain of a function f has a small number of elements, we can specify the rule of f by listing the image f (x) of each element x in the domain. For example, let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4, 5}; then we can define a function f : A - B by the rule f (0) = 2, f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 5. We can represent the behaviour of this function by a diagram, as shown below.

There is exactly one arrow from each element in the domain, since each element in the domain has exactly one image in the codomain. There may be no arrows, one arrow or several arrows going to an element in the codomain, since an element in the codomain may not be an image at all, may be an image of exactly one element in the domain, or may be an image of several elements in the domain.

For example, for this function, 3 is not an image at all, 5 is the image of 3 only, and 2 is the image of b oth 0 and 1.

Exercise 2.2 Which of the following diagrams correspond(s) to a
function?


Identity functions
Associated with any set A, there is a particularly simple function whose domain and codomain are the set A. This is the identity function iA which maps each element of A to itself. For example, let A = {0, 1, 2, 3}; then the rule of the identity function is iA (0) = 0, iA (1) = 1, iA (2) = 2, iA (3) = 3. The following definition applies to any set A, finite or infinite.
We sometimes omit the subscript A if we do not need to emphasise the set.

23


Unit I2 Mathematical language

Definition

The identity function on a set A is the function

iA : A - A
x
- x.

2.2 Image of a function
The rule associated with a function tells us how to find the image of any element in the domain. Often, however, we need to consider the images of a whole subset of elements drawn from the domain; for example, in geometry, we frequently wish to consider the effect of a transformation on a plane figure, a subset of R2 .

Definition Given a function f : A - B , and a subset S of A, the image, or image set, of S under f , written f (S ), is the set
f (S ) = {f (x): x S }. For example, suppose that S is the square with vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1), and we want to find the image of S under the function f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x +2,y ). This function is the translation of the plane which moves each point (x, y ) to the right by 2. The image of S is therefore the square with vertices at f (0, 0) = (2, 0), f (1, 0) = (3, 0), f (1, 1) = (3, 1) and f (0, 1) = (2, 1). Sometimes we wish to consider the image of the whole domain of a function: this is referred to as the image, or image set, of the function.

Definition The image, or image set, of a function f : A - B is the set
f (A) = {f (x): x A}. The image of a function is a subset of its codomain. It need not be equal to the codomain because there may be some elements of the codomain that are not images of elements in the domain. When the domain of a function f has a small number of elements, we can find the image of f by finding the image of each element in the domain, and listing them to form a set.

Example 2.1

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
Recall that [x], the integer part of x, is the largest integer that is less than or equal to x. For example, [3.7] = 3, [3] = 3 and [-3.7] = -4.

Find the image of the function f : A - A x - 1x . 2

24


Section 2 Functions

Solution

The images of the elements of A are f (1) = 0, f (6) = 3, f (2) = 1, f (7) = 3, f (3) = 1, f (8) = 4, f (4) = 2, f (9) = 4.

f (0) = 0, f (5) = 2,

So the image of f is f (A) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

Exercise 2.3 Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Find the image of the function f : A - A
x
- 9 - x.
In Exercise 2.3 you should have found that the image and the codomain coincide. In other words, each element of the codomain is the image of an element in the domain. A function with this property is said to be onto.

Definition

A function f : A - B is onto if f (A) = B .

Exercise 2.4 Which of the following diagrams correspond(s) to an onto function?

Example 2.2 For each of the following functions, find its image and determine whether it is onto.
(a) f : R - R x - 2x - 5 (b) f : R - R x - x2 (c) f : R - R (x, y ) - (x +1,y +2)
2 2

Some texts refer to an onto function as a surjective function.

(d) f : A - A, where A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} x - 1 x 2

Solution
(a) The sketch of the graph of f shown in the margin suggests that the image of f is the whole of R. To confirm this, we prove algebraically that f (R) = R. We know that f (R) R, so we must show that f (R) R. Let y be an arbitrary element in R. We must show that y f (R); that
is, there exists an element x in the domain R such that
f (x) = y ; that is, 2x - 5 = y. Rearranging this equation, we obtain
y +5
. x= 2 This is in R and satisfies f (x) = y , as required. Thus f (R) R. Since f (R) R and f (R) R, it follows that f (R) = R, so the image of f is indeed R. The codomain of f is also R, so f is onto.

In this solution, we use , rather than , so that the image is always on the left and the codomain on the right.

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Unit I2 Mathematical language

(b) The sketch of the graph of f shown in the margin suggests that the image of f is [0, ). We now prove algebraically that f (R) = [0, ). Let x be an arbitrary element in the domain R; then f (x) = x2 0, so
f (R) [0, ).
We must show that f (R) [0, ). Let y be an arbitrary element in [0, ). We must show that there exists an element x in the domain R such that f (x) = y ; that is, x2 = y. Now x = y is in R (since y 0) and satisfies f (x) = y , as required. Thus f (R) [0, ). Since f (R) [0, ) and f (R) [0, ), it follows that f (R) = [0, ), so the image of f is [0, ), as expected. The interval [0, ) is not the whole of the codomain, so f is not onto. (c) This function is a translation of the plane that shifts each point to the right by 1 unit and up by 2 units. This suggests that f (R2 ) = R2 . We know that f (R2 ) R2 , so we must show that f (R2 ) R2 . Let (x ,y ) be an arbitrary element in the codomain R2 . We must show that there exists an element (x, y ) in the domain R2 such that f (x, y ) = (x ,y ); x = x - 1, that is, x = x +1, y = y +2. Rearranging these two equations, we obtain y = y - 2. With these values, (x, y ) R2 and f (x, y ) = (x ,y ), as required. Thus f ( R2 ) R 2 . Since f (R2 ) R2 and f (R2 ) R2 , it follows that f (R2 ) = R2 , so the image of f is R2 , as expected. The codomain of f is also R2 , so f is onto. (d) In Example 2.1, we showed that the image of this function is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. This is not the whole of the codomain, so f is not onto.

Alternatively, we couldhoose c the real numb er x = - y , which also satisfies f (x) = y .

Exercise 2.5 For each of the following functions, find its image and determine whether it is onto. (a) f : R - R x - 1+ x2 (b) f : R2 - R2
(x, y ) - (x, -y )


2.3 Inver se functions
Given a function f : A - B
x
- f (x), it is sometimes possible to define an inverse function that `undoes' the effect of f by mapping each image element f (x) back to the element x whose image it is. For example, a rotation can be `undone' by a rotation in the opposite direction.

26


Section 2 Functions

However, consider the function f : A - A, where A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, x - 1 x . 2 We know that f (2) = f (3) = 1, and so a function that `undoes' the effect of f must map the number 1 to the number 2 and to the number 3, which is impossible. Thus, in this case, no inverse function exists. This function f is an example of a function that is many-one. A many-one function does not have an inverse function.

Definitions A function f : A - B is one-one if each element of
f (A) is the image of exactly one element of A; that is,

if x1 ,x2 A and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .


Some texts refer to a one-one function as an injective function. We write x1 ,x2 A as shorthand for x1 A and x2 A. The term `one-one' is often read as `one to one'; similarly `many-one' is often read as `many to one'.

A function that is not one-one is many-one.
Remark Thus a function f is one-one if it maps distinct elements in the domain A to distinct elements in the image f (A). To prove that a function f is not one-one, it is sufficient to find a single counter-example --that is, a pair of distinct elements in the domain A with the same image in f (A).

Exercise 2.6 Which of the following diagrams correspond(s) to a one-one function?

Example 2.3

Determine which of the following functions are one-one. (b) f : R - R x - x2 (c) f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x +1,y +2)

(a) f : R - R x - 2x - 5

Solution
(a) The graph suggests that f is one-one. We now prove this algebraically. Suppose that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ); then 2x1 - 5 = 2x2 - 5, so 2x1 = 2x2 , and hence x1 = x2 . Thus f is one-one. (b) The graph suggests that f is not one-one. To show that f is not one-one, we just need to find two distinct points in the domain of f with the same image. For example, f (2) = f (-2) = 4, so f is not one-one.

27


Unit I2 Mathematical language

(c) This function is a translation of the plane, and so we expect it to be one-one. We now prove this algebraically. Suppose that f (x1 ,y1 ) = f (x2 ,y2 ); then (x1 +1,y1 + 2) = (x2 +1,y2 +2). Thus x1 +1 = x2 +1 and y1 +2 = y2 +2,
so x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
Hence (x1 ,y1 ) = (x2 ,y2 ), so f is one-one.

Exercise 2.7 Determine which of the following functions is one-one. (a) f : R - R x - 1+ x2 (b) f : R2 - R2
(x, y ) - (x, -y )


For a one-one function f : A - B , we have the situation illustrated in the margin. Each element y in f (A) is the image of a unique element x in A, and so we can reverse the arrows to obtain the inverse function f -1 , with domain f (A) and image A, which maps y back to x.

Definition Let f : A - B be a one-one function. Then f has an inverse function f -1 : f (A) - A, with rule
f
-1

(y ) = x,

where y = f (x).

A function f : A - B that is both one-one and onto has an inverse function f -1 : B - A. Such a function f is said to be a one-one corresp ondence, or a bijection, between the sets A and B .

Example 2.4 For each of the following functions, determine whether f has an inverse function f -1 ; if it exists, find it.
(a) f : R - R x - 2x - 5 (d) f : A - A x - 1 x 2 (b) f : R - R x - x2 (c) f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x +1,y +2)

where A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

Solution
(a) In Example 2.3(a), we showed that f is one-one, so f has an inverse function. In Example 2.2(a), we showed that the image of f is R and that, for
each y in the image R, we have
y=f So f
-1 -1

y +5 2

.

is the function

: R - R y +5 . y - 2 This definition can be expressed in terms of x as f f
-1

: R - R x +5 x - . 2

It does not matter whether the definition of f -1 is expressed in terms of x or y , but it is more usual to use x in the definition of a real function.

28


Section 2 Functions

(b) In Example 2.3(b), we showed that f is not one-one, so f does not have an inverse function. (c) In Example 2.3(c), we showed that f is one-one, so f has an inverse function. In Example 2.2(c), we showed that the image of f is R2 and that, for each (x ,y ) in the image R2 , we have (x ,y ) = f (x - 1,y - 2). So f
-1 -1

is the function

f

: R2 - R2 (x ,y ) - (x - 1,y - 2). : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x - 1,y - 2).

Geometrically, f is the translation of the plane that shifts each p oint to the right by 1 unit and up by 2 units. Since f -1 undoes the effect of f , the inverse f -1 is the translation that shifts each p oint to the left by 1 unit and down by 2 units.

This definition can be expressed in terms of x and y as f
-1

(d) At the beginning of this subsection, we showed that f is not one-one, so f does not have an inverse function.

Exercise 2.8 For each of the following functions, determine whether
f has an inverse function f -1 ; if it exists, find f -1 .
(a) f : R - R - 1+ x2 x (b) f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x, -y ) (c) f : R - R
x - 8x +3


Hint: For parts (a) and (b), use your answers to Exercises 2.5 and 2.7.

Restr ictions
When given a function f : A - B , it is often convenient to restrict attention to the behaviour of f on some subset C of A. For example, consider the function f : R - R
- x2 . x
This function is not one-one and so does not have an inverse function. However, if the domain of f is replaced by the set C = [0, ), then we obtain a related function g : C - R
- x2 . x
The rule is the same as for f , but the domain is `restricted' to produce a
new function g that is one-one and so has an inverse.
The function g is an example of a restriction of f in the sense that
g (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of g .
More generally, we define a restriction as follows.


Definition Let f : A - B and let C be a subset of the domain A. Then the function g : C - B defined by
g (x) = f (x), for x C, is the restriction of f to C .

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Unit I2 Mathematical language

Exercise 2.9 Let f be the function f : R - R
x
- |x|.
Write down a restriction of f that is one-one.


2.4 Composite functions
Earlier, we described how a function may be regarded as a machine that processes elements in the domain to produce elements in the codomain. Now suppose that two such machines are linked together, so that the elements emerging from the first machine are fed into the second machine for further processing. The overall effect is to create a new `composite' machine that corresponds to a so-called composite function. Consider the real functions f : R - R g : R - R
and x - 2x - 5.
x - x2 When the machines for f and g are linked together so that ob jects are first processed by f and then by g , we obtain the `composite' machine illustrated by the dark blue box in the diagram below.

For example, when 2 is fed into the machine, it is first squared by f to produce the number 4, and then 4 is processed by g to give the number (2 в 4) - 5 = 3. Similarly, when an arbitrary real number x is fed into the machine, it is first processed by f to give the real number x2 . Since the domain of g is the whole of R, the number x2 can then be processed by g to give 2x2 - 5. Thus, overall, the composite machine corresponds to a function, denoted by g f , whose rule is (g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = 2x2 - 5 and whose domain is R. In general, if f : A - B and g : B - C , then we can form the composite function g f : A - C
x - g (f (x)).

Rememb er that g f means f first, then g. Here the domain of the function g : B - C is the same as the codomain of the function f : A - B .

Exercise 2.10 Let f and g be the functions f : R - R x - -x (a) g f , and g : R - R
- 3x +1.
x


Determine the composite functions
(b) f g .

The composite functions g f and f g are not equal in general, as you saw in the above exercise.

30


Section 2 Functions

Composite functions have many uses in mathematics. In geometry, they are frequently used to examine the effect of one transformation of the plane followed by another. Suppose, for example, that f and g are the reflections of the plane in the x-axis and y -axis respectively: f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x, -y ) and g : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (-x, y ).

The composite function g f describes the overall effect of first reflecting in the x-axis (changing the sign of y ) and then reflecting in the y -axis (changing the sign of x).

The rule of g f is (g f )(x, y ) = g (f (x, y )) = g (x, -y ) = (-x, -y ). Thus g f is the function g f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (-x, -y ), which rotates the plane through about the origin. For example, a square is transformed as follows.

Exercise 2.11 Determine the composite function f g of the following transformations of the plane: f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (x, -y ) and g : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (-x, y ).

So far, we have considered the composite function g f only when the domain of the function g : B - C is the same as the codomain of the function f : A - B . We can, however, form the composite function g f when g and f are any two functions.

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Unit I2 Mathematical language

For example, consider the functions 1 x- Here the domain of g is not equal to the co consider the composite function g f , with 1 . (g f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (x2 ) = 2 x -1 In this case, the domain of g f cannot be and -1 are both mapped by f to the numb of g ; this means that no further processing and x - f : R - R x - x2 g : R -{1}- R . 1 domain of f , but we can still the rule

R (the domain of f ) since 1 er 1, which is not in the domain is possible.

To overcome this difficulty, we take the domain of g f to be the difference
R -{1, -1}. So the composite function g f is g f : R -{1, -1} - R
1
. x2 - 1 The general situation is illustrated below. Given any two functions f : A - B and g : C - D, the rule of the composite function g f is x - (g f )(x) = g (f (x)). The domain of g f consists of all those elements x in A for which f (x) lies in C (the domain of g ). The codomain of g f is defined to be D (the codomain of g ).

Definition Let f : A - B and g : C - D be any two functions; then the comp osite function g f has
domain {x A : f (x) C }, codomain D, rule (g f )(x) = g (f (x)). In the example on page 32, the domain of g f is just the set of values for which the rule of g f is defined. This is not the case in the following exercise.

This definition allows us to consider the comp osite of any two functions, although in some cases the domain may turn out to b e the empty set . Some authors insist up on f (A) C as a condition for g f to exist.

32


Section 2 Functions

Exercise 2.12 Determine the composite function g f for the following functions f and g : g : R -{-2}- R
f :[-1, 1] - R and 3 - 3x +1 x
. x - x +2

Composites and inver ses
Suppose that f : A - B is a one-one and onto function. Then f has an inverse function f -1 : B - A. We can therefore consider the effect that the composite function f -1 f : A - A has on an arbitrary element x in A. First, f maps x to an element y = f (x) in f (A). Then f -1 `undoes' the effect of f and maps y back to x. Overall, the effect of f -1 f is to leave x fixed: that is, (f -1 f )(x) = x. Since x is an arbitrary element of A, it follows that f -1 f fixes all the elements of A. In other words, f -1 f = iA .

Similar arguments can be used to show that f f -1 = iB . So, if f : A - B has an inverse function f -1 : B - A, then f
-1

f = iA

and f f

-1

= iB .

The converse of this statement is also true: if a function g : B - A satisfies g f = iA and f g = iB , then g is the inverse function of f . We shall prove this after Exercise 2.13. It leads to the following strategy.

Strateg y 2.1 To show that the function g : B - A is the inverse
function of the function f : A - B .

1. Show that f (g (x)) = x for each x B ; that is, f g = iB . 2. Show that g (f (x)) = x for each x A; that is, g f = iA . In practice, we can sometimes use Strategy 2.1 as an alternative way of finding an inverse function. We make an inspired guess at the function, and use Strategy 2.1 to check that our guess is correct.

Example 2.5

Find the inverse of the function

g : R - R
- 1 x. x
2

Solution

We guess that the inverse function is

f : R - R
- 2x. x
We use Strategy 2.1 to check that our guess is correct.

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Unit I2 Mathematical language

1. For each x R, we have f (g (x)) = f ( 1 x) = 2 в 1 x = x; 2 2 that is, f g = iR . 2. For each x R, we have g (f (x)) = g (2x) = that is, g f = iR . Since f g = iR and g f = iR , it follows that g is the inverse function of f .
1 2

в 2x = x;

Exercise 2.13 Use Strategy 2.1 to show that g : R - R
x - x - 3

is the inverse function of
f : R - R
x
- x +3.
We end this section by proving, as promised, that if the functions f : A - B and g : B - A satisfy g f = iA and f g = iB , then g is the inverse function of f . That is, we have to show that if the two steps of Strategy 2.1 hold, then f has an inverse function, and the inverse function is equal to g . Suppose that the two steps of Strategy 2.1 hold. First we show that f is one-one. Suppose that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ); then g (f (x1 )) = g (f (x2 )), so, by step 2, x1 = x2 . Thus f is one-one and so it has an inverse
function f -1 .
Now we find the image of f . We know that the image of f is a subset of its
codomain B ; we shall show that it is equal to B by showing that every
element y of B is the image under f of some element in A. Suppose that
y B . Then, by step 1,
f (g (y )) = y ; that is, y is the image under f of the element g (y ), as required. Thus the image of f is B (that is, f is onto), and so f -1 has domain B . We now know that each of the functions f -1 and g has domain B and codomain A. To show that they are equal, it remains to show that g (y ) = f -1 (y ) for each element y of B . Let y be an arbitrary element of B . Then y = f (x) for some element x of A. So f
-1

(y ) = x,

and, by step 2, g (y ) = g (f (x)) = x. Hence f
-1

and g are indeed equal functions.

34


Section 3 The language of proof

Fur ther exercises
Exercise 2.14 For each of the following transformations f : R2 - R2 , state whether f is a translation, reflection or rotation of the plane.
(a) f (x, y ) = (y, -x) (b) f (x, y ) = (x - 2,y +1)

Exercise 2.15 Draw a diagram showing the image of T , the triangle with vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0) and (1, 1), under each of the functions f of Exercise 2.14. Exercise 2.16 For each of the following functions, find its image and determine whether it is onto.
(a) f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (-y, x) (c) f : R - R x - x2 - 4x +3 (b) f : R - R x - 7 - 3x (d) f :[0, 1] - R x - 2x +3

Exercise 2.17 Determine which of the functions in Exercise 2.16 are one-one. Exercise 2.18 Determine which of the functions in Exercise 2.16 has an inverse, and find the inverse f -1 for each one which does. Exercise 2.19 Determine the composite f g for each of the following pairs of functions f and g .
(a) f : R - R and g : R -{2, -2}- R 1 x - 7 - 3x . x - 2 x -4 (b) f : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (-y, x) and g : R2 - R2 (x, y ) - (y, x).