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For INTERNATIONAL JUBILEE SYMPOSIUM, Learned Council of SAI
The Scientific Results of Space Research of the Moon:
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MILLENNIUM CHALLENGES FOR LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACEI

Philip R. Harris, Ph.D.
Management/Space Psychologist & Author
HARRIS INTERNATIONAL, LTD.
LaJolla, California 92037, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

With the approach of a new millennium, activities in outer space should
be placed in
the service of humanity. Starting in the 21st
Century, a space policy regarding off-world development should be valued
for their
contribution toward improving the quality of life on this planet, as well
as in the entire Solar System.

To this end, humankind needs to articulate a new global vision and ethos
relative to our joint efforts in outer space. As we extend our species
into the universe, humanity needs to integrate its visions and philosophies
regarding orbital enterprises. Today, the majority of the world's
inhabitants are terrestrially oriented, and do not perceive space, its
exploration, utilization, and settlement as central to our wellbeing and
continuing evolution.

For the first time in human history, we have the opportunity to plan the
establishment of space culture. We can begin to make choices
relative to the kind of societies we wish to create as spacefaring
civilizations. As human habitations are constructed on this high frontier,
from space stations to planetary bases, enlightened thought should also be
directed to matters of space governance.
United Nations space treaties enshrine space as the common heritage of
humankind, and that spacefarers are our envoys. Before the migration aloft
escalates beyond elite astronauts and cosmonauts, their sponsors need to
agree on the groundrules, be it strategies, guidelines, laws or
understandings
to ensure that space exploration and resource
utilization will be accomplished for the benefit of the Earth and its
peoples. Contributors to Space Policy may clarify such issues, and provide
leadership in this mission for tomorrow!

SPACE VISION AND ETHOSii

Since the first time our ancestors climbed down from trees and walked
upright, the human species has always explored and probed new frontiers -
it is part of our nature. We have migrated around our planet
and under its waters, but after three million years as terrestrial beings,
we have begun to go offworld in the last half of the 20th Century! This
human enterprise in outer space is manifested both in manned and unmanned
spaceflights that extend our minds to the farthest corners of our known
universe. For eons, we thought we were earthbound, yet strove through
poetry, prose, and film to place the Man on the Moon. Finally, on July
21, 1969, we achieved the first human lunar landing.
To paraphrase astronaut Neil Armstrong's
words on that occasion, this second great step for humankind was a giant
leap in our evolution as a species. Now we are forced to strip away our
blinders and binders for we are not earthbound and we can fly to the stars!
This means we have to change our
collective self-image to create a new identity and ethos for humanity -
maybe our real home is out there, not just on Spaceship Earth!
Dictionaries define the term, vision,
as unusual foresight; using the imagination in creation of a future
scenario or mental image. Some of the most stirring visions of our future
aloft have come from visuals, thanks to photographs and television produced
by astronauts, astronomers, and astronautical artists.[i] In our space
context, a visionary is one who moves beyond the here and now to envision
humanity's future aloft.


At the end of the 19th Century, one such person was the pioneering Russian
space philosopher, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who observed about the Earth:
The planet is the cradle of intelligence, but it is impossible to live
forever in the cradle.[ii]

As we enter a third millennium, the challenge before humanity was well
stated by another visionary, the late U.S. Senator from Hawaii when he
wrote:[iii]
At a certain point, anything less than international exploration of the
cosmos from our tiny planet will cease to make any sense at all.we must
develop policies that respond to the unfolding realities of the Space Age,
that move us out to meet it on its own uniquely promising terms. Without
such policies, earthbound civilization can only wind up recoiling upon
itself.

Both before and since the Russians launched the first orbiting satellite,
Sputnik 1 (October 4, 1957), various leaders, space agencies, and
organizations have attempted to set forth their visions and goals for the
exploration, settlement and industrialization of the high or so-called
final frontier. One such significant statement came from the National
Commission on Space through its farsighted report, Pioneering the Space
Frontier[iv] . Established under U.S Presidential authority, The Commission
offered a fifty-year forecast for the space program. Although many of its
recommendations have yet to be implemented, they centered on this vision
to:
advance understanding of our Earth, its solar system, and the universe..
explore, prospect, and settle the inner solar system..
open up the vast resources of space frontier to supplement the limitation
of our own planet.

Among individual visionaries, an eloquent, comprehensive expression of our
future in a microgravity environment came from Krafft A. Ehricke, a German-
born rocket pioneer. Unique to this remarkable scientist was his
understanding of the philosophical and anthropological underpinnings in
human exploration of the solar system - he saw the traveling to other
celestial bodies as a reflection of the highest degree of independence and
agility of the human mind.[v] Ericke envisioned man as unique because of
our ability to reason and solve problems. He saw space development as an
absolute necessity for our species to reach its potential. Naming this the
extraterrestrial imperative, he believed that space travel was a universal
activity for us which transcended nationalities, and went beyond historical
or ethnological origins. His three philosophical premises, based on the
natural laws of this universe, were:
nobody and nothing impose any limitations upon Man except ourselves..
the Earth, as well as the entire
solar system and the universe we
can reach, are Man's rightful field of
activity..
by expanding through the universe, Man
fulfills our destiny as an element of life.

Ehricke thought that space development would enable humankind to transform
and improve the reality of our existence - it was a means to overcome
extreme poverty, mass starvation, as well disasters which were geopolitical
or ecological in origin.

Our rationale for human emergence in outer space requires an ethos, as
well as vision. Ethos is defined as the fundamental character or spirit
that defines a culture. It is the underlying sentiment that informs the
beliefs, customs, and practices of a society. A global space ethos has yet
to be articulated, so as to dominate the citizenry's assumptions, values,
and dispositions. For most of the world's inhabitants do not perceive
space, its exploration and utilization, as central to our wellbeing. The
media has created a certain amount of mass interest in spacefaring, though
the majority are still terrestrially oriented. Humanity have not fully
grasped the deep significance of migrating aloft, and its importance for
this planet and its peoples.

Space Ethos Prototypes

In four regions of this world, peoples unconsciously struggle to formulate
and express their space ethos:

In North America, a very proactive
people innovate with a space program that is mission-centered, technically
sophisticated, underfunded, and controlled by the public sector. Yet
private space enterprise and investment are growing and increasingly will
dominate these endeavors. After the Apollo missions ended, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as well as other government
entities and reports within both the United States and Canada, have come
forth with bold initiatives and pragmatic strategies to further space
development. However, few have actually been translated into national
policy and commitment. At this writing, beyond building an International
Space Station, there is still great uncertainly as to which direction to
move, whether in manned or unmanned missions, to the Moon or Mars. Were a
space vision and ethos to be cultivated in the nations' schools, colleges,
universities, businesses and media, then doable strategic plans would be
formulated that would gain citizen and investor support. Yet over the last
half century, American enterprise has extended human intelligence
throughout the cosmos - to eight planets in the Solar System, to numerous
low orbiting flights, and to placing twelve astronauts on the Moon.
However, the U.S. space program
originally began in response to challenges initially from Nazi Germany, and
later from the former Soviet Union.

Perhaps the best expressions of the American space ethos has come from
television and film producers, such as Stanley Kubrick, Gene Rodenberry,
George Lucas, Stephen Spielberg, and Tom Hanks.

One manifestation of a national ethos is the amount of money invested in
space development. Today, America's taxpayers invest more in space
undertakings than the rest of the world put together - almost $15 billion
annually, but less than was spent in 1966! Some Presidents have exercised
national leadership in space endeavors, while others have cut back space
funding. Although a national debate or expression of an American space
ethos has yet to be articulated, the National Commission on Space report
(1986) came close to stating it for that country:
As we move outward into the Solar
System, we must remain true to our
American values - to go forward
peacefully and to respect the integrity of
the planetary bodies and alien life forms,
with equality of opportunity for all.

Within Canada a space ethos has risen gradually since the country
first launched the
Aloutte 1 satellite in 1962. It is most evident in a growing space
community with their publications and conferences, as well as in increased
allocation of the national budget to space efforts. After success with
Canadarm
and Canadian astronauts on the space shuttle
of NASA, as well as joint ventures with the European Space Agency, the
country's space budget is estimated to be $2.4 billion (Canadian dollars)
by year 2000.

In Russia and the former states of the
Soviet Union, a turning point in their advanced space program took place
with the implosion and collapse of the U.S.S.R.
as a political entity in International Space Year (1992).[vi] Formerly,
their space ethos replaced religion in the life of the people - their
cosmonauts, such as Gagarian the first human in space and Leonov the first
person to walk in space, were revered like demigods. The public adulation
of Soviet spacefarers can be seen in the giant paintings
and busts, parks and museums, cosmodromes and space city. But in the
chaotic, crises-ridden Russian Federation of today their space program is
underfunded (1.17 trillion rubles, approximately $270 million), barely
enough to keep the Mir station aloft. The cosmonauts are no longer of
mythical proportions as people struggle to survive. The Russians have
always favored international participation in their space ventures, and
currently are key partners in the International Space Station. One of their
media reports emphasized that their country is and will be a space power,
for breath- taking ambitions are necessary to reach the spiritual heights
of the Russian spirit.

Despite the setbacks and the present social transitions, the Russians still
are leaders in excellent space science and engineering, as well as
philosophical understanding of cosmonautics and its implications for
humanity's future. Russians have been articulating an inspirational space
ethos
for over a 140 years! One of the earliest expression came from Nicholai
Federov,
a 19th Century philopsher-librarian.. In his thinking everything in the
universe was alive with some degree of consciousness:[vii]
Since human beings had the highest state of consciouness, their special
role is to give design and purpose into the chaotic workings of the natural
world.
Mankind needs space for material and spiritual development - we have a
moral obligation to immortalize life and to settle on other planets in the
solar system.
Federov was the mentor who influenced the thinking of Tsiolkovsky, the
father of space travel, particularly with reference space colonization.
Tsiolkovsky, gave cosmic meaning to human space endeavors, including the
why of inhabitating the solar system, as well as the how in terms of space
science and engineering. In 1935, just before his death, he remarked: The
biggest step in the history of mankind will be to leave the atmosphere of
Earth to join the other planets!

In such a tradition, deeply rooted in the country's culture, Russian
cosmism has emerged as a space philosophy. A combination of natural
philosophy, religion, and ethics, it has been described by Vladimir
Lytkin, Scientific Director of the State Tsiolkovsky Museum of the History
of Cosmonautics in Kaluga, Russia:
Russian cosmism deals with the history
and philosophy of the origin, evolution,
and future existence of the universe and
humankind .

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky envisioned the universe as a single substance with
the same structure, governed by the same laws. He wrote that by studying
our solar system, we study the entire universe! He speculated that a cosmic
force governs the universe which we may think of as God or an extremely
high level of an extraterrestrial space civilization.
For him, higher levels of human civilizations possess the technology for
interplanetary and interstellar travel. Human evolution is advanced by
living in free space to the point when a new species will emerge, Homo
Cosmicus, that is spacefaring man described by others as Homo Spatiales or
spacekind.
This philospher-aeronautical engineer saw spaceflight and spacecrafts as
the first steps in human history toward creation of a Star Culture era.

In western Europe, a space ethos has
been developing within the multicultural, multinational European Space
Agency (ESA). But the first dreamers of space travel came from that
continent - from inventive artists like Michelangelo and Chesley Bonestell,
to farsighted writers like Jules Verne and Arthur Clarke, to scientists and
engineers like Herman Oberth, Werner von Braun, and Krafft Ehricke. Under
French and German leadership, ESA has developed complex launch systems,
satellites, and research programs in long-duration mission isolation, as
well as plans for lunar science studies. Within the growing European Union,
ESA coordinates the space efforts of some sixteen nations on an annual
budget of $3.4 billion, while cooperating on joint ventures with both NASA
and the Russian Space Agency (RKA).

Some indications of the emerging European ethos is evident in a recent
ESA report on The European Moon Programme
(ESA/SPC 94-43, Annex 1): At the turn of the second millennium, our planet
is at a major turning point..The need for large and global [space]
programmes is necessary for global economic development.serving mankind,
offering a mirror with which to survey the home planet, while exploring
further the limits of habitability and its visibility of the Universe.

in Asia, there has been an interest in
space travel and communication satellites in many countries of the Middle
and Far East. The leadership in space technology and ethos has come from
Japan, China, and India, followed by Pakistan, Korea, Taiwan, and
Indonesia, and Australia. Their ethos is manifested in the amount of money
invested in space programs, the emphasis on international and Pacific Rim
cooperation.
The major effort comes from Japan which is developing both manned and
unmanned systems, sending astronauts to the American
shuttle and Russian Mir station, and partnering in the International Space
Station.
While government-sponsored space technology in China has economic and
military purposes, Japan is more scientifically
and commercially oriented, especially toward lunar settlement and tourism.
Through their National Space Development Agency (NASDA) and the Institute
of Space and Astronatucial Science (ISAS), this country invests annually
over $2 billion in space, the largest such budget in Asia. But their space
research involves both the public and private sectors. The degree of
regional cooperation is evident in Arabsat, a telecommunications satellite
financed by 22 countries in West Asia.


Global Space Ethos Conclusions

Humanity, whether in the West or the East senses that our species is in an
epochal transitions to space-based living, creating in the process an
entirely new space culture!
A growing microculture of space professionals and activists around the
world is beginning to define a space ethos for the masses of unaware
peoples. The vision of this subculture is exchanged globally through the
Internet, books, professional associations and conferences, as well as
through joint space ventures. The collective consciousness of these
futurists is well summed up in the following quotation:
Thus we stand in the late 20th Century, on the threshold of extending old
civilizations into space, perhaps even creating
new ones in which our own sons
and daughters may be extra-
terrestrials from every point of
view.[viii]

SPACE CULTURE AND SETTLEMENT

As earthkind expands beyond its gravity well into outer space through
automation or in person, our species is formulating a space culture, as
well as a new person called spacekind. Both kinds will be interdependent,
so this author maintains that
space is a place for synergy! Cooperation and collaboration are the
watchwords of space development, especially because of the
cost and complexity of macroprojects there. The world's space agencies have
finally realized this as they undertake the largest and most sophisticated
technological enterprise - orbiting and maintaining an International Space
Station. Unfortunately,
our sociopolitical institutions worldwide have yet to create a global
entity for promoting and managing earthkind's endeavors on the high
frontier.

Astroculture

Culture is a unique human capacity - a coping ability of Homo Sapiens to
the environment which facilitates daily living.
In this way, we are learning to cope with the challenges of microgravity
and surviving offworld. Through this means, we will transmit to future
generations, consciously or unconsciously, a space culture. Information and
insights of this unique social environment is created in the form of
customs, norms, practices, traditions, and taboos for living and working
safely in space.
Culture, whether on this planet or aloft, is communicable knowledge that is
both learned and unlearned, overt and covert in practice, which influences
all systems, including social and technological. The organizational
cultures of ground-based aerospace agencies and corporations influence
behavior and actions on the high ground. On Earth, human culture is
remarkable for its diversity; now we see the same phenomenon happening
aloft in the multinational sponsorship of space missions,
and the multicultural composition of spacefaring crews.

For fifty years behavioral scientists have engaged in pre-planning for
astroculture in their Earth-based studies of human factors in extreme
environments, such as Antarctica, underseas, offshore rigs, and other areas
of
isolated confined environments (ICE).[ix] For over four decades as Space
Age began, physicians, psychologists, anthropologists, and sociologists
have been studying humans who travel for short durations l00 km or more
into orbit. [x] The latter research has confirmed that humans can perform
well in a zero or microgravity environment. [xi] However, certain
precautions and training are necessary if risks are to be manageable.
The space environment does affect both the physiological and psychological
aspects of a person.

The real challenge in creating space culture will occur with long-duration
spaceflights and settlement on planets like our Moon and Mars. To prepare
for such, one may take a systems approach to analyzing space culture.
Exhibit 1 illustrates another way of studying
astroculture. It offers a paradigm based on ten categories of culture. In
other words, space changes or alters our sense of self, ways of
communicating, dress/appearance, food/ feeding habits, time consciousness,
interpersonal relationships, values/ norms, beliefs/customs/traditions,
mental processes/
learning, work habits/process, and other dimensions of human behavior. We
can use this model to prepare spacefarers to study their culture aloft, and
be amenable to creating one that is appropriate for spacekind. We can also
use it to analyze the cultures of sponsoring organizations on Earth - their
cultures can aid or abet the success of their fellow humans in orbit.
Culture is a powerful concept that influences the future of space programs
and development. We should be doing advance planning now on 21st Century
space communities and their desired cultures.

More than a decade ago the National Academy recommended: [xii]
The overall goal for the study of human behavior in space is the
development of empirically based scientific principles that can identify
environmental, individual, group and organizational requirements for long-
term occupancy of space by humans.
Fortunately, many scholars, whether in universities, space agencies, or
corporations have inaugurated such investigations. Not only is there a
Universities Space Research Association, but institutions of higher
education are now offering courses in many aspects of space living. Dr.
Edward Cheston pointed up a new arena of study in the social sciences
called spaceology: [xiii]

Spaceology is that branch of knowledge that treats the origin, development
and varieties of interaction between human culture and the extraterrestrial
environment. Spaceology would draw upon the humanities, social sciences,
and natural sciences with equal facility.

It is already evident that the exploration and colonization of space
requires interdisciplinary efforts. Most careers and professions will have
a place in orbit, but are likely to be altered in practice. We already see
this in the field of astrophysics, but expect the emergence of astrolaw,
astrobusiness, astroeducation, astroengineering, astroanthroplogists, et
al.

Space Colonization

Although the human species required over three and a half billion years to
evolve, only in the past half century have we begun to explore and
penetrate the planetary system.
Psychologists and anthropologists have mused on our exploratory nature
which propels us to beyond our homeworld.[xiv] Professor Jordan Peterson
suggests that humanity has an exploration consciousness
that mediates between the unknown or chaotic, and the known or ordered.
Professor Ben Finney believes that while interstellar migration may be a
revolutionary step for our species, it represents a continuity with our
past. He counsels that before establishing bases on the Moon or Mars,
serious social prototype studies should focus on groups living effectively
together within space stations in lower Earth orbit. Dr. Finney also
proposes more ground-based research as analogs and simulations for
designing future space communities.

Princeton physicist, Gerard K. O'Neil, wrote that the opening of the high
frontier will challenge the best in us, while giving us the opportunity to
search for better governments, social systems and ways of life. He
projected large-scale, self-sustaining orbiting space colonies with
populations in the thousands. [xv] Although O'Neil's research and forecasts
were made 20 years ago before his death, it is unlikely his vision will be
implemented for another century. In the 20th Century, we have only
precursor endeavors to space colonization - Skylab, Mir, and the
International Space Station now under construction provide their limited
inhabitants with relatively short term orbital experiences (from days to
over a year). It will be the 21st Century that will bring the first real
space settlements, whether initially on the Moon or Mars. Apart from the
technical aspects, Exhibit 2 provides ten arenas in which space
policy and planning should now be underway.

A case for investment can be made first for a lunar base. The utilization
of the Moon's resources to conceive a two-planet economy would more than
justify the building of a lunar base.[xvi] These resources extend from
the mining of Helium 3 to the beaming of solar energy from the Moon or its
orbit for the benefit of humanity. [xvii] The International Academy of
Astronautics has had an on-going futures study of the Moon and its
potential.[xviii] Their infrastructure plans for joint ventures in such
extraterrestrial enterprises include an Earth-based spaceport, launch and
facility services; a lunar spaceport, lunar base authority, lunar support
services company; lunar mining and manufacturing company, and lunar
laboratories; plus a space utilities group which includes a space solar
power system and/or lunar power company.

The most imaginative scenario for lunar development was produced in 1984 by
rocket scientist, Krafft Ehrichke, before his death in LaJolla,
California.[xix] He envisioned a city on the Moon called Selenopolis, named
after the Greek godess, Selene . Ehricke then provided a detailed plan in
various evolutionary phases for
space industrialization (the capability of productive existence in a new
environment);
space urbanization (the capability for establishing large-scale
settlements and extraterrestrial civilizations);
extraterrestrialization (a prolonged process of socio-psychological
development and anthropological divergence to create a new type of
civilization in outer space).
He viewed the Earth-Moon system as interconnected, only 2-3 flight days
away from each other. He was convinced that a viable exo-industrial economy
could be developed on the Moon utilizing advanced nuclear, cybernetic, and
materials processing technologies that eventually would make it possible to
export food and other resources to the people of Earth. Ehricke maintained
that no other celestial body and no orbiting space station can more
effectively permit development of habitats, materials extraction, and
processing methods. His pragmatic strategy emphasized the need for
manageable, maximum investment returns that would attract both venture
capital and private funds. Since this was to be a prototype for other
planetary settlements, he precisely outlined five stages for gradual, long-
term development of a lunar world, capable of housing millions.

There have been many other schemes put forth for space colonization, some
by scientists and others by science fiction authors. [xx] There is growing
global consensus that space settlement is to be:

the principal activity of the New Millennium; a process that will begin
in the 21st Century with lunar
development and Mars exploration,
but extend over centuries..
international in scope, involving both
the private and public sectors
cooperating in the sponsorship of
macroprojects..
market driven so that private enterprise
and entrepreneurs will be encouraged to
participate..[xxi]
technology driven in terms of both
lowering the cost of access to space, and
in the wide use of both automation and
robotics..
a process of consciousness-raising on the part of both global politicians
and the masses of the public as to why and how we must settle and
industrialize the space frontier - mass media and space activists have a
critical role in this public information effort to create a global space
ethos.

Conclusions

As humanity enters the third millennium, those interested in space policy
and development should give consideration to the formulation of both a
space vision and a space ethos. In other words, we toolmakers have to
comprehend why we are rocketing into the high frontier and creating a
spacefaring civilization!

References













I Copyright c Philip R. Harris, 1999
Ii This paper is based, in part, upon P. R. Harris'
Living and Working in Space published in
1996 by Wiley-Praxis, Chichester, England.


-----------------------
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Migration and the Human Experienc.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985..Launius, R.D.,
Frontiers of Space Exploration. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press/
Praeger, 1998.

[xv] O'Neil, G.K. The High Frontier-Human Colonies in Space. Princeton, NJ:
Space Studies Institute, 1989; ed., Space Resources and Space Settlement.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979 (NASA-SP-428).

[xvi] McKay, M.F., McKay, D.S., and Duke, M.B. (eds.) Space Resources.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992, NASA-SO-509,
5 vols. (see volumes 2, Energy, Power and Transport; 3, Materials; 4,
Social Concerns)..
Harris, P.R. Liking and Working in Space.
Chichester, UK: Wiley-Praxis, 1996 (see chapter 10,
Strategies for Lunar Economic Development; Appendix B, Case Study - a Lunar
Solar Power System.Schrunk, D.G., Cooper, B. Sharpe, B., and Thangavelu, M.
The Moon: Resources, Development, and Colonization. Chichester, UK:
Praxis, 1999..Spudis, P.D. The Once and Future Moon. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996.

[xvii] Glaser, P. E., Davidson, F.P., and Csigi, K., Solar Power
Satellities. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Praxis, 1998.

[xviii] Koelle, H.H., IAA Subcommittee on Lunar Development (Aerospace
Institute, Technical University, Marchstr 14, D-10587, Berlin Germany -
request newsletter, Lunar Base Quarterly; homepage on Internet:
http://vulcain.fb12.TU-Berlin.de/ILR/personen/hh_koelle.html). Also request
IAA 1999 report on Integrated Moon-Mars Exploration and Development Program
for the 21st Century.

[xix] Freeman, M. Krafft Ehricke's Moon- A Lush Oasis of Life, 21st
Science and Technology, Vol.11:2, Summer 1998, pp. 19-33 (PO Box 16285,
Washington, DC 20041, USA).. Mendell, W.W. (ed.) Lunar Bases and Space
Activities for the 21st Century. Houston, TX: Lunar Planetary Institute,
1985 (the last chapter is by Krafft Ehricke).

[xx] Zubrin, R. with R. Wagner, The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why
We Must. New York, NY: The Free Press, 1996..Stoker, C.R. and Emmart, C.
(eds.), Strategies for Mars: A Guide for Human Exploration. San Diego,
CA:UNIVELT Inc, 1996.. Heppenheimer, T.A. Colonies In Space (1977); Toward
Distant Suns - A Bold, New Prospectus for Humans Living in Space (1979).
Both volumes available from Stackpole Books (PO Box 1831, Harrisburg, PA
17105, USA).

[xxi] Haskell, G. and Rycroft, M. (eds.) New Space Markets. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1998..Galloway, R.G.and Lokaj, S. Space ' 98 - The
Sixth International Conference and Exposition on Engineering, Construction
and Operations in Space; Demsetz, L.A., Byrne, R.H., Wetzel, J.P. Robotics
' 98 - Third International Conference and Exposition on Robotics for
Challenging Environments. Both books published in 1998 along with post-
conference proceedings, are available from the American Society of Civil
Engineers (1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191, USA).