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You've heard that UNIX is difficult and balk at the prospect of leaving VMS, don't you? Don't worry. Linux, one of the finest UNIX clones, is not more difficult to use than VMS; actually, I find it easier. Although VMS aficionados may not agree, in many people's opinion Linux is much more powerful and versatile.
Linux and VMS are both good operating systems and accomplish essentially the same tasks, but Linux has a few features that make it a good alternative to VMS. Moreover, Linux is available for PCs while VMS is not, and modern Pentium-based Linux machines can outperform a VAX. The icing on the cake is the excellent performance of modern video cards, which turn an X11-based Linux box into a fast graphic workstation; nearly always, quicker than dedicated machines.
I imagine you're a university researcher or a student, and that you use VMS for the following everyday tasks:
In the following sections I'm going to explain to you how to do these tasks under Linux, exploiting your experience with VMS. Prerequisites:
DCL---is bash (ask your
sysadm).
Please note that this HOWTO is not enough to acquaint you fully with
Linux: it only contains the bare essential to get you started. You
should learn more about Linux to make the most of it (advanced bash
features, programming, regular expressions...). From now on, RMP means
`please read the man pages for further details'. The man pages are the
equivalent of the command HELP.
The Linux Documentation Project documents, available on ftp://sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/docs/LDP, are an important source of information. I suggest that you read Larry Greenfield's ``Linux User Guide''---it's invaluable for the novice user.
And now, go ahead.
This table attempts to compare VMS' and Linux' most used commands. Please keep in mind that the syntax is often very different; for more details, refer to the following sections.
VMS Linux Notes
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
@COMMAND command must be executable
COPY file1 file2 cp file1 file2
CREATE/DIR [.dirname] mkdir dirname only one at a time
CREATE/DIR [.dir1.dir2] mkdirhier dir/name
DELETE filename rm filename
DIFF file1 file2 diff -c file1 file2
DIRECTORY ls
DIRECTORY [...]file find . -name file
DIRECTORY/FULL ls -al
EDIT filename vi filename, you won't like it
emacs filename, EDT compatible
jed filename ditto---my favourite
FORTRAN prog.for g77 prog.f, no need to do LINK
f77 prog.f,
fort77 prog.f
HELP command man command must specify `command'
info command ditto
LATEX file.tex latex file.tex
LOGIN.COM .bash_profile, `hidden' file
.bashrc ditto
LOGOUT.COM .bash_logout ditto
MAIL mail, crude
elm, much better
pine better still
PRINT file.ps lpr file.ps
PRINT/QUEUE=laser file.ps lpr -Plaser file.ps
PHONE user talk user
RENAME file1 file2 mv file1 file2 not for multiple files
RUN progname progname
SEARCH file "pattern" grep pattern file
SET DEFAULT [-] cd ..
SET DEFAULT [.dir.name] cd dir/name
SET HOST hostname telnet hostname, not exactly the same
rlogin hostname
SET FILE/OWNER_UIC=joe chown joe file completely different
SET NOBROADCAST mesg
SET PASSWORD passwd
SET PROT=(perm) file chmod perm file completely different
SET TERMINAL export TERM= different syntax
SHOW DEFAULT pwd
SHOW DEVICE du, df
SHOW ENTRY lpq
SHOW PROCESS ps -ax
SHOW QUEUE lpq
SHOW SYSTEM top
SHOW TIME date
SHOW USERS w
STOP kill
STOP/QUEUE kill, for processes
lprm for print queues
SUBMIT command command &
SUBMIT/AFTER=time command at time command
TEX file.tex tex file.tex
TYPE/PAGE file more file
less file much better
But of course it's not only a matter of different command names. Read on.
This is what you absolutely need to know before logging in the first time. Relax, it's not much.
filename.extension;version.
Under Linux, the version number doesn't exist (big limitation, but see
Section
Numbered Backups Under Linux); the filename
has normally a limit of 255 characters and can have as many dots as you
like. Example of filename: This.is_a_FILEname.txt.
FILENAME.txt and filename.txt are two different files;
ls is a command, LS is not.
~' represent backup files.
Now, a table to sum up how to translate commands from VMS to Linux:
VMS Linux
---------------------------------------------------------------------
$ COPY file1.txt file2.txt $ cp file1.txt file2.txt
$ COPY [.dir]file.txt [] $ cp dir/file.txt .
$ COPY [.dir]file.txt [-] $ cp dir/file.txt ..
$ DELETE *.dat;* $ rm *dat
$ DIFF file1 file2 $ diff -c file1 file2
$ PRINT file $ lpr file
$ PRINT/queue=queuename file $ lpr -Pprintername file
$ SEARCH *.tex;* "geology" $ grep geology *tex
For other examples involving directories, see below; for details about protections, ownership, and advanced topics, see Section Advanced Topics.
[top.dir.subdir]; under Linux, /top/dir/subdir/. On
the top of the directory tree lies the so--called `root directory' called
/; underneath there are other directories like /bin,
/usr, /tmp, /etc, and others.
/home contains the so--called users' `home
directories': e.g. /home/guido, /home/warner, and so on.
When a user logs in, they start working in their home dir; it's the
equivalent of SYS$LOGIN. There's a shortcut for the home
directory: the tilde '~'. So, cd ~/tmp is the same
as, say, cd /home/guido/tmp.
. and refers to the
directory itself (like []), and .. that refers to the parent
directory (like [-]).
And now for some other examples:
VMS Linux
---------------------------------------------------------------------
$ CREATE/DIR [.dirname] $ mkdir dirname
$ CREATE/DIR [.dir1.dir2.dir3] $ mkdirhier dir1/dir2/dir3
n/a $ rmdir dirname
(if dirname is empty)
$ rm -R dirname
$ DIRECTORY $ ls
$ DIRECTORY [...]file.*;* $ find . -name "file*"
$ SET DEF SYS$LOGIN $ cd
$ SET DEF [-] $ cd ..
$ SET DEF [top.dir.subdir] $ cd /top/dir/subdir
$ SET DEF [.dir.subdir] $ cd dir/subdir
$ SHOW DEF $ pwd
For protections, ownership, and advanced topics, see Section Advanced Topics.
.EXE or .COM
and can be called whatever you like. Executable files are marked by an
asterisk '*' when you issue ls -F.
RUN
PROGRAM.EXE or @COMMAND). Caveat: it's essential that the file be
located in a directory included in the path of executables, which is a
list of directories. Typically, the path includes dirs like /bin,
/usr/bin, /usr/X11R6/bin, and others. If you write your
own programs, put them in a directory you have included in the path (see how
in Section
Configuring). As an alternative,
you may run a program specifying its complete path: e.g.,
/home/guido/data/myprog; or ./myprog, if the current
directory isn't in the path.
/OPTION= under VMS, and
with -switch or --switch under Linux, where switch is a
letter, more letters combined, or a word. In particular, the switch -R
(recursive) of many Linux commands performs the same action as [...]
under VMS;
$ command1 ; command2 ; ... ; commandn
/OUTPUT= of many commands), or a fastidious process,
like:
$ DEFINE /USER SYS$OUTPUT OUT
$ DEFINE /USER SYS$INPUT IN
$ RUN PROG
$ prog < in > out
$ myprog < datafile | filter_1 | filter_2 >> result.dat 2> errors.log &
myprog gets its input from the file
datafile (via <), its output is piped (via |) to
the program filter_1 that takes it as input and processes it, the
resulting output is piped again to filter_2 for further processing, the
final output is appended (via >>) to the file result.dat,
and error messages are redirected (via 2>) onto the file
errors.log. All this in background (& at the end of the
command line). More about this in Section
Examples.
For multitasking, `queues', and the like, see Section Advanced Topics.
Now you are ready to try Linux out. Enter your login name and password
exactly as they are. For example, if your login name and password are
john and My_PassWd, don't type John or my_passwd.
Remember, UNIX distinguishes between capital and small letters.
Once you've logged in, you'll see a prompt; chances are it'll be something
like machinename:$. If you want to change the prompt or make
some programs start automatically, you'll have to edit a `hidden' file
called .profile or .bash_profile (see example in Section
Configuring). This is the equivalent of
LOGIN.COM.
Pressing ALT--F1, ALT--F2, ... ALT--F6 switches between `virtual consoles'. When one VC is busy with a full--screen application, you can flip over to another and continue to work. Try and log in to another VC.
Now you may want to start X Window System (from now on, X). X is a graphic
environment very similar to DECWindows---actually, the latter derives from
the former. Type the command startx and wait a few seconds; most likely
you'll see an open xterm or equivalent terminal emulator, and possibly
a button bar. (It depends on how your sysadm configured your Linux box.)
Click on the desktop (try both mouse buttons) to see a menu.
While in X, to access the text mode (`console') sessions press CTRL--ALT--F1 ... CTRL--ALT--F6. Try it. When in console, go back to X pressing ALT--F7. To quit X, follow the menu instructions or press CTRL--ALT--BS.
Type the following command to list your home dir contents, including the hidden files:
$ ls -al
Press SHIFT--PAG UP to back-scroll. Now get help about the ls command
typing:
$ man ls
pressing 'q' to exit. To end the tour, type exit to quit your session.
If now you want to turn off your PC, press CTRL--ALT--DEL and wait a few
seconds (never switch off the PC while in Linux! You could damage the
filesystem.)
If you think you're ready to work, go ahead, but if I were you I'd jump to Section Advanced Topics.
Linux doesn't have EDT, but there are scores of editors available. The
only one that's guaranteed to be included in every UNIX version is
vi---forget it, your sysadm must have installed something better.
Probably the most popular editor is emacs, which can emulate EDT
to a certain degree; jed is another editor that provides EDT
emulation.
These two editors are particularly useful for editing program sources, since
they have two features unknown to EDT: syntax hilighting and automatic
indentation. Moreover, you can compile your programs from within the editor
(command ESC-X compile); in case of a syntax error, the cursor will be
positioned on the offending line. I bet that you'll never want to use the
true blue EDT again.
If you have emacs: start it, then type ESC-X edt-emulation-on.
Pressing ALT--X or ESC-X is emacs' way of issuing commands, like
EDT's CTRL--Z. From now on, emacs acts like EDT apart from a
few commands. Differences:
emacs. Type fg to resume it);
If you have jed: ask your sysadm to configure jed properly.
Emulation is already on when you start it; use the normal keypad keys, and
press CTRL--H CTRL--H or CTRL-? to get help. Commands are issued in the same
way as emacs'. In addition, there are some handy key bindings missing
in the original EDT; key bindings can also be tailored to your own
taste. Ask your sysadm.
In alternative, you may use another editor with a completely different
interface. emacs in native mode is an obvious choice; another popular
editor is joe, which can emulate other editors like emacs itself
(being even easier to use) or the DOS editor. Invoke the editor as
jmacs or jstar and press, respectively, CTRL-X H or CTRL-J to get
online help. emacs and jed are much more powerful than good
ol' EDT.
TeX and LaTeX are identical to their VMS counterparts---only quicker :-),
but the tools to handle the .dvi and .ps files are superior:
tex file.tex;
.dvi file into a .ps file, type
dvips -o filename.ps filename.dvi;
.dvi file, type within an X session:
xdvi filename.dvi &. Click on the page to magnify. This program
is smart: if you edit and run TeX producing newer versions of the .dvi
file, xdvi will update it automatically;
.ps file, type within an X session: ghostview
filename.ps &. Click on the page to magnify. The whole document or
selected pages can be printed. A newer and better program is gv.
.ps: usually the command lpr mypaper.ps will
do, but if the PostScript printer is called, say, `ps' (ask your
sysadm) you'll do: lpr -Pps mypaper.ps. For more information
about print queues, go to Section
Print Queues.
Programming under Linux is much better: there are lots of tools that
make programming easier and quicker. For instance, the drudgery of
editing--saving--exiting--compiling--re-editing can be cut short by using
editors like emacs or jed, as seen above.
Not substantial differences here, but note that at the time of writing the
available (free) compilers are not 100% compatible with VMS'; expect
some minor quirks. (It's actually the VMS compiler which has non-standard
extensions.) See /usr/doc/g77/DOC or /usr/doc/f2c/f2c.ps
for details.
Your sysadm has installed a native compiler called g77 (good but, as of
version 0.5.21, still not perfectly compatible with DEC Fortran) or possibly
the Fortran to C translator, f2c, and one of the front-ends that make it
mimic a native compiler. In my experience, the package yaf77 is the
one that provides best results.
To compile a Fortran program with g77, edit the source, save it with
extension .f, then do:
$ g77 myprog.f
which creates by default an executable called a.out (you don't have
to link anything). To give the executable a different name and do some
optimisation:
$ g77 -O2 -o myprog myprog.f
Beware of optimisations! Ask your sysadm to read the documentation that comes with the compiler and tell you if there are any problems.
To compile a subroutine:
$ g77 -c mysub.f
This creates a file mysub.o. To link this subroutine to a program,
you'll do
$ g77 -o myprog myprog.f mysub.o
If you have many external subroutines and you want to make a library, do the following:
$ cd subroutines/
$ cat *f >mylib.f ; g77 -c mylib.f
This will create mylib.o that you can link to your programs.
Finally, to link an external library called, say, libdummy.so:
$ g77 -o myprog myprog.f -ldummy
If you have f2c, you only have to use f77 or fort77 instead
of g77.
Another useful programming tool is make, described below.
make
The utility make is a tool to handle the compilation of programs that
are split into several source files. The VMS counterparts are MMS
and MMK, which have a different syntax.
Let's suppose you have source files containing your routines, file_1.f,
file_2.f, file_3.f, and a source file of the main program that uses the
routines, myprog.f. If you compile your program manually, whenever you
modify one of the source files you have to figure out which file depends on
which, which file to recompile first, and so on.
Instead of getting mad, you can write a `makefile'. This is a text file containing the dependencies between your sources: when one is modified, only the ones that depend on the modified file will be recompiled.
In our example, you'd write a makefile like this:
# This is makefile # Press the <TAB> key where you see <TAB>! # It's important: don't use spaces instead. myprog: myprog.o file_1.o file_2.o file_3.o <TAB>g77 -o myprog myprog.o file_1.o file_2.o file_3.o # myprog depends on four object files myprog.o: myprog.f <TAB>g77 -c myprog.f # myprog.o depends on its source file file_1.o: file_1.f <TAB>g77 -c file_1.f # file_1.o depends on its source file file_2.o: file_2.f file_1.o <TAB>g77 -c file_2.f file_1.o # file_2.o depends on its source file and an object file file_3.o: file_3.f file_2.o <TAB>g77 -c file_3.f file_2.o # file_3.o depends on its source file and an object file # end of makefile.
Save this file as Makefile and type make to compile your program;
alternatively, save it as myprog.mak and type make -f myprog.mak.
And of course, RMP.
Shell scripts are the equivalent of VMS' command files, and allow for very powerful constructs.
To write a script, all you have to do is write a standard ASCII file
containing the commands, save it, then make it executable with the
command chmod +x <scriptfile>. To execute it, type its name.
Writing scripts under bash is such a vast subject it would require a
book by itself, and I will not delve into the topic any further. I'll just
give you a more-or-less comprehensive and (hopefully) useful example you can
extract some basic rules from.
EXAMPLE: sample.sh
#!/bin/sh
# sample.sh
# I am a comment
# don't change the first line, it must be there
echo "This system is: `uname -a`" # use the output of the command
echo "My name is $0" # built-in variables
echo "You gave me the following $# parameters: "$*
echo "First parameter is: "$1
echo -n "What's your name? " ; read your_name
echo notice the difference: "hi $your_name" # quoting with "
echo notice the difference: 'hi $your_name' # quoting with '
DIRS=0 ; FILES=0
for file in `ls .` ; do
if [ -d ${file} ] ; then # if file is a directory
DIRS=`expr $DIRS + 1` # this means DIRS = DIRS + 1
elif [ -f ${file} ] ; then
FILES=`expr $FILES + 1`
fi
case ${file} in
*.gif|*jpg) echo "${file}: graphic file" ;;
*.txt|*.tex) echo "${file}: text file" ;;
*.c|*.f|*.for) echo "${file}: source file" ;;
*) echo "${file}: generic file" ;;
esac
done
echo "there are ${DIRS} directories and ${FILES} files"
ls | grep "ZxY--!!!WKW"
if [ $? != 0 ] ; then # exit code of last command
echo "ZxY--!!!WKW not found"
fi
echo "enough... type 'man bash' if you want more info."
Linux is an excellent environment to program in C. Taken for granted that
you know C, here are a couple of guidelines. To compile your standard
hello.c you'll use the gcc compiler, which comes as part of Linux
and has the same syntax as g77:
$ gcc -O2 -o hello hello.c
To link a library to a program, add the switch -l<libname>.
For example, to link the math library and optimize do
$ gcc -O2 -o mathprog mathprog.c -lm
(The -l<libname> switch forces gcc to link the library
/usr/lib/lib<libname>.a; so -lm links
/usr/lib/libm.a).
When your program is made of several source files, you'll need to use the
utility make described above. Just use gcc and C source files in
the makefile.
You can invoke some help about the C functions, that are covered by man pages, section 3; for example,
$ man 3 printf
There are lots of libraries available out there; among the first you'll want
to use are ncurses, to handle text mode effects, and svgalib, to
do graphics.
Among the scores of graphic packages available, gnuplot stands out
for its power and ease of use. Go to X and type gnuplot, and have
two sample data files ready: 2D-data.dat (two data per line), and
3D-data.dat (three data per line).
Examples of 2-D graphs:
gnuplot> set title "my first graph"
gnuplot> plot '2D-data.dat'
gnuplot> plot '2D-data.dat' with linespoints
gnuplot> plot '2D-data.dat', sin(x)
gnuplot> plot [-5:10] '2D-data.dat'
Example of 3-D graphs (each `row' of X values is followed by a blank line):
gnuplot> set parametric ; set hidden3d ; set contour
gnuplot> splot '3D-data.dat' using 1:2:3 with linespoints
A single-column datafile (e.g., a time series) can also be plotted as a 2-D graph:
gnuplot> plot [-5:15] '2D-data-1col.dat' with linespoints
or as a 3-D graph (blank lines in the datafile, as above):
gnuplot> set noparametric ; set hidden3d
gnuplot> splot '3D-data-1col.dat' using 1 with linespoints
To print a graph: if the command to print on your Postscript printer is
lpr -Pps file.ps, issue:
gnuplot> set term post
gnuplot> set out '| lpr -Pps'
gnuplot> replot
then type set term x11 to restore. Don't get confused---the last print
will come out only when you quit gnuplot.
For more info, type help or see the examples in directory
/usr/lib/gnuplot/demos/, if you have it.
Since Internet was born on UNIX machines, you find plenty of nice and easy-to-use applications under Linux. Here are just some:
elm or pine to handle your email; both
programs have on-line help. For short messages, you could use mail, as
in mail -s "hello mate" user@somewhere < msg.txt. You may like programs
like xmail or some such.
tin or slrn, both very intuitive and
self-explanatory.
ftp, ask your
sysadm to install the full-screen ncftp or a graphical ftp client like
xftp.
netscape, or xmosaic,
chimera, and arena are graphical web browsers; a character-based
one is lynx, quick and effective.
Here the game gets tough. Learn these features, then you'll be ready to say that you `know something about Linux' ;-)
Files and directories have permissions (`protections') and ownership, just like under VMS. If you can't run a program, or can't modify a file, or can't access a directory, it's because you don't have the permission to do so, and/or because the file doesn't belong to you. Let's have a look at the following example:
$ ls -l /bin/ls
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root bin 27281 Aug 15 1995 /bin/ls*
The first field shows the permissions of the file ls (owner root,
group bin). There are three types of ownership: owner, group, and others
(similar to VMS owner, group, world), and three types of permissions:
read, write (and delete), and execute.
From left to right, - is the file type (- = ordinary file, d
= directory, l = link, etc); rwx are the permissions for the file
owner (read, write, execute); r-x are the permissions for the group of
the file owner (read, execute); r-x are the permissions for all other
users (read, execute).
To change a file's permissions:
$ chmod <whoXperm> <file>
where who is u (user, that is owner), g (group), o (other),
X is either + or -, perm is r (read), w (write), or
x (execute). Examples:
$ chmod u+x file
this sets the execute permission for the file owner. Shortcut:
chmod +x file.
$ chmod go-wx file
this removes write and execute permission for everyone except the owner.
$ chmod ugo+rwx file
this gives everyone read, write, and execute permission.
A shorter way to refer to permissions is with numbers: rwxr-xr-x can be
expressed as 755 (every letter corresponds to a bit: --- is 0,
--x is 1, -w- is 2...).
For a directory, rx means that you can cd to that directory, and
w means that you can delete a file in the directory (according to the
file's permissions, of course), or the directory itself. All this is only
part of the matter---RMP.
To change a file's owner:
$ chown username file
To sum up, a table:
VMS Linux Notes
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SET PROT=(O:RW) file.txt $ chmod u+rw file.txt
$ chmod 600 file.txt
SET PROT=(O:RWED,W) file $ chmod u+rwx file
$ chmod 700 file
SET PROT=(O:RWED,W:RE) file $ chmod 755 file
SET PROT=(O:RW,G:RW,W) file $ chmod 660 file
SET FILE/OWNER_UIC=JOE file $ chown joe file
SET DIR/OWNER_UIC=JOE [.dir] $ chown joe dir/
More about running programs. There are no `batch queues' under Linux as you're used to; multitasking is handled very differently. Again, this is what the typical command line looks like:
$ command -s1 -s2 ... -sn par1 par2 ... parn < input > output &
where -s1, ..., -sn are the program switches,
par1, ..., parn are the program parameters.
Now let's see how multitasking works. Programs, running in foreground or background, are called `processes'.
$ progname [-switches] [parameters] [< input] [> output] &
[1] 234
$ ps -ax
$ kill <PID>
$ kill -15 <PID>
$ kill -9 <PID>
In addition to this, the shell allows you to stop or temporarily suspend a process, send a process to background, and bring a process from background to foreground. In this context, processes are called `jobs'.
$ jobs
$ CTRL-C
$ CTRL-Z
$ bg <job>
$ fg <job>
$ kill <%job>
More information about files.
stdin (standard input; usually, the keyboard), put their
output on a `file' called stdout (usually, the screen), and error
messages go to a `file' called stderr (usually, the screen).
Using < and > you redirect input and output to a different
file. Moreover, >> appends the output to a file instead of
overwriting it; 2> redirects error messages (stderr); 2>&1
redirects stderr to stdout, while 1>&2 redirects stdout to stderr.
There's a `black hole' called /dev/null: everything redirected to
it disappears;
*' is almost the same. Usage: * matches all
files except the hidden ones; .* matches all hidden files; *.* matches
only those that have a '.' in the middle, followed by other characters;
p*r matches both `peter' and `piper'; *c* matches both `picked' and `peck'.
'%' becomes '?'. There is another wildcard: the
[]. Usage: [abc]* matches files starting with a, b, c;
*[I-N,1,2,3] matches files ending with I, J, K, L, M, N, 1, 2, 3;
mv (RENAME) doesn't work for multiple files; that is,
mv *.xxx *.yyy won't work;
cp -i and mv -i to be warned when a file is going to
be overwritten.
Your prints are queued, like under VMS. When you issue a print command, you may specify a printer name. Example:
$ lpr file.txt # this goes to the standard printer
$ lpr -Plaser file.ps # this goes to the printer named 'laser'
To handle the print queues, you use the following commands:
VMS Linux
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
$ PRINT file.ps $ lpr file.ps
$ PRINT/QUEUE=laser file.ps $ lpr -Plaser file.ps
$ SHOW QUEUE $ lpq
$ SHOW QUEUE/QUEUE=laser $ lpq -Plaser
$ STOP/QUEUE $ lprm <item>
Your sysadm has already provided you with a number of configuration files
like .xinitrc, .bash_profile, .inputrc, and many others. The
ones you may want to edit are:
.bash_profile or .profile: read by the shell at login
time. It's like LOGIN.COM;
.bash_logout: read by the shell at logout. It's like
LOGOUT.COM;
.bashrc: read by non--login shells.
.inputrc: this file customises the key bindings and the
behaviour of the shell.
To give you an example, I'll include my .bash_profile (abridged):
# $HOME/.bash_profile
# don't redefine the path if not necessary
echo $PATH | grep $LOGNAME > /dev/null
if [ $? != 0 ]
then
export PATH="$PATH:/home/$LOGNAME/bin" # add my dir to the PATH
fi
export PS1='LOGNAME:\w\$ '
export PS2='Continued...>'
# aliases
alias bin="cd ~/bin" ; alias cp="cp -i" ; alias d="dir"
alias del="delete" ; alias dir="/bin/ls $LS_OPTIONS --format=vertical"
alias ed="jed" ; alias mv='mv -i'
alias u="cd .." ; alias undel="undelete"
# A few useful functions
inst() # Install a .tar.gz archive in current directory.
{
gzip -dc $1 | tar xvf -
}
cz() # List the contents of a .zip archive.
{
unzip -l $*
}
ctgz() # List the contents of a .tar.gz archive.
{
for file in $* ; do
gzip -dc ${file} | tar tf -
done
}
tgz() # Create a .tgz archive a la zip.
{
name=$1 ; tar -cvf $1 ; shift
tar -rf ${name} $* ; gzip -S .tgz ${name}
}
And this is my .inputrc:
# $HOME/.inputrc # Last modified: 16 January 1997. # # This file is read by bash and defines key bindings to be used by the shell; # what follows fixes the keys END, HOME, and DELETE, plus accented letters. # For more information, man readline. "\e[1~": beginning-of-line "\e[3~": delete-char "\e[4~": end-of-line set bell-style visible set meta-flag On set convert-meta Off set output-meta On set horizontal-scroll-mode On set show-all-if-ambiguous On # (F1 .. F5) are "\e[[A" ... "\e[[E" "\e[[A": "info "
less
You'll use this file browser every day, so I'll give you a couple of tips to
use it at best. First of all, ask your sysadm to configure less so as
it can display not only plain text files, but also compressed files,
archives, and so on.
Like recent versions of TYPE, less lets you browse files
in both directions. It also accepts several commands that are issued
pressing a key. The most useful are:
q to leave the browser;
h gives you extensive help;
g to go to beginning of file, G to the end, number+g
to go to line `number' (e.g. 125g), number+% to move to that
percentage of the file;
/pattern searches forwards for `pattern'; n searches
forwards for the next match; ?pattern and N search backwards;
m+letter marks current position (e.g. ma); '+letter go
to the marked position.
:e examines a new file;
!command executes the shell command.
Alas, Linux doesn't still support file version numbers, but you overcome this limitation in two ways. The first is to use RCS, the Revision Control System, which allows you to keep previous versions of a file. RCS is covered in ``The RCS MINI-HOWTO'' ( http://sunsite.unc.edu/mdw/HOWTO/mini/RCS.html).
The second way is to use an editor that knows how to deal with numbered
backups; emacs and jed are OK. In emacs, add
these lines in your .emacs:
(setq version-control t)
(setq kept-new-versions 15) ;;; or any other value
(setq kept-old-versions 15)
(setq backup-by-copying-when-linked t)
(setq backup-by-copying-when-mismatch t)
In jed, make sure you have version 0.98.7 or newer; the patch for
numbered backups is available on
http://ibogeo.df.unibo.it/guido/slang/backups.sl .
Under UNIX there are some widely used applications to archive and
compress files. tar is used to make archives, that is collections of
files. To make a new archive:
$ tar -cvf <archive_name.tar> <file> [file...]
To extract files from an archive:
$ tar -xpvf <archive_name.tar> [file...]
To list the contents of an archive:
$ tar -tf <archive_name.tar> | less
Files can be compressed to save disk space using compress, which is
obsolete and shouldn't be used any more, or gzip:
$ compress <file>
$ gzip <file>
that creates a compressed file with extension .Z (compress) or .gz
(gzip). These programs don't make archives, but compress files
individually. To decompress, use:
$ compress -d <file.Z>
$ gzip -d <file.gz>
RMP.
The unarj, zip and unzip utilities are also available. Files
with extension .tar.gz or .tgz (archived with tar, then
compressed with gzip) are very common in the UNIX world. Here's how to
list the contents of a .tar.gz archive:
$ tar -ztf <file.tar.gz> | less
To extract the files from a .tar.gz archive:
$ tar -zxf <file.tar.gz>
UNIX' core idea is that there are many simple commands that can linked together via piping and redirection to accomplish even really complex tasks. Have a look at the following examples. I'll only explain the most complex ones; for the others, please study the above sections and the man pages.
Problem: ls is too quick and the file names fly away.
Solution:
$ ls | less
Problem: I have a file containing a list of words. I want to sort it in reverse order and print it.
Solution:
$ cat myfile.txt | sort -r | lpr
Problem: my data file has some repeated lines! How do I get rid of them?
Solution:
$ sort datafile.dat | uniq > newfile.dat
Problem: I have a file called 'mypaper.txt' or 'mypaper.tex' or some such somewhere, but I don't remember where I put it. How do I find it?
Solution:
$ find ~ -name "mypaper*"
Explanation: find is a very useful command that lists all the files
in a directory tree (starting from ~ in this case). Its output
can be filtered to meet several criteria, such as -name.
Problem: I have a text file containing the word 'entropy' in this
directory, is there anything like SEARCH?
Solution: yes, try
$ grep -l 'entropy' *
Problem: somewhere I have text files containing the word 'entropy', I'd
like to know which and where they are. Under VMS I'd use search entropy
[...]*.*;*, but grep can't recurse subdirectories. Now what?
Solution:
$ find . -exec grep -l "entropy" {} \; 2> /dev/null
Explanation: find . outputs all the file names starting from the
current directory, -exec grep -l "entropy" is an action to be
performed on each file (represented by {}), \
terminates the command. If you think this syntax is awful, you're right.
In alternative, write the following script:
#!/bin/sh
# rgrep: recursive grep
if [ $# != 3 ]
then
echo "Usage: rgrep --switches 'pattern' 'directory'"
exit 1
fi
find $3 -name "*" -exec grep $1 $2 {} \; 2> /dev/null
Explanation: grep works like search, and combining it with
find we get the best of both worlds.
Problem: I have a data file that has two header lines, then every line has 'n' data, not necessarily equally spaced. I want the 2nd and 5th data value of each line. Shall I write a Fortran program...?
Solution: nope. This is quicker:
$ awk 'NL > 2 {print $2, "\t", $5}' datafile.dat > newfile.dat
Explanation: the command awk is actually a programming language:
for each line starting from the third in datafile.dat, print out
the second and fifth field, separated by a tab. Learn some awk---it
saves a lot of time.
Problem: I've downloaded an FTP site's ls-lR.gz to check its
contents. For each subdirectory, it contains a line that reads "total xxxx",
where xxxx is size in kbytes of the dir contents. I'd like to get the grand
total of all these xxxx values.
Solution:
$ zcat ls-lR.gz | awk ' $1 == "total" { i += $2 } END {print i}'
Explanation: zcat outputs the contents of the .gz file and pipes
to awk, whose man page you're kindly requested to read ;-)
Problem: I've written a Fortran program, myprog, to calculate a
parameter from a data file. I'd like to run it on hundreds of data files
and have a list of the results, but it's a nuisance to ask each time for
the file name. Under VMS I'd write a lengthy command file, and under Linux?
Solution: a very short script. Make your program look for the data
file 'mydata.dat' and print the result on the screen (stdout), then
write the following script:
#!/bin/sh
# myprog.sh: run the same command on many different files
# usage: myprog.sh *.dat
for file in $* # for all parameters (e.g. *.dat)
do
# append the file name to result.dat
echo -n "${file}: " >> results.dat
# copy current argument to mydata.dat, run myprog
# and append the output to results.dat
cp ${file} mydata.dat ; myprog >> results.dat
done
Problem: I want to replace `geology' with `geophysics' in all my text files. Shall I edit them all manually?
Solution: nope. Write this shell script:
#!/bin/sh
# replace $1 with $2 in $*
# usage: replace "old-pattern" "new-pattern" file [file...]
OLD=$1 # first parameter of the script
NEW=$2 # second parameter
shift ; shift # discard the first 2 parameters: the next are the file names
for file in $* # for all files given as parameters
do
# replace every occurrence of OLD with NEW, save on a temporary file
sed "s/$OLD/$NEW/g" ${file} > ${file}.new
# rename the temporary file as the original file
/bin/mv ${file}.new ${file}
done
Problem: I have some data files, I don't know their length and have to remove their last but one and last but two lines. Er... manually?
Solution: no, of course. Write this script:
#!/bin/sh
# prune.sh: removes n-1th and n-2th lines from files
# usage: prune.sh file [file...]
for file in $* # for every parameter
do
LINES=`wc -l $file | awk '{print $1}'` # number of lines in file
LINES=`expr $LINES - 3` # LINES = LINES - 3
head -n $LINES $file > $file.new # output first LINES lines
tail -n 1 $file >> $file.new # append last line
done
I hope these examples whetted your appetite...
less this_is_a_long_name; typing in less thi<TAB>
will suffice. (If you have other files that start with the same
characters, supply enough characters to resolve any ambiguity.)
more or cat
a binary file, your screen may end up full of garbage. To fix things,
blind type reset or this sequence of characters:
echo CTRL-V ESC c RETURN.
xterm window, then click the middle button
(or the two buttons together if you have a two-button mouse) to paste.
gpm, a mouse
driver for the console. Click and drag to select text, then right click
to paste the selected text. It works across different VCs.
(This section was written by Mike Miller)
From time to time you may want to read tapes made on a VMS machine (or tapes that are made to be readable by VMS and *nix systems). In general, this is quite easy for DECFILES11A tapes.
Although you may be reading this as part of a Linux mini-HOWTO, I believe that the information here is applicable to any *nix system - I've done this on Linux, HP, Sun and DEC *nix systems. The main platform dependences that I know are device names, which can differ on different systems, and the options to mt for specifying the device name (for example, mt -f on Linux and mt -t on HPUX 9).
Caveat - I've only tried this with Exabyte 8mm SCSI tape drives. If you've read other formats (still got those 9-tracks lying around?) let me know and I'll add a note here.
When reading a tape that has been made with the VMS ``copy'' command (or has at least been made to look like it was made with copy) all you need to know is there will be three files on the tape for each actual data file - a header, the data, and a trailer. The header and trailer are interesting in that they contain info on the file as it existed under VMS. The data is, well, the data. Each of these files can be extracted from the tape with the dd command. The tape can be positioned by skipping around with the mt command.
Example: I've got VMS tape with a series of files on it. The first two were originally named ce66-2.evt and ce66-3.evt on a VMS system. The tape label is c66a2.
If I execute these commands:
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=header1
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=data1
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=trailer1
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=header2
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=data2
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=trailer2
I'm left with six files: header1, data1, trailer1, header2, data2 and trailer2. The syntax here is if="input file", bs="block size" and of="output file". TAPE is expected to be a variable containing the device name of your tape drive - for example, /dev/nts0 if you are using the first SCSI tape on Linux.
If you wanted to read the second file, but not the first, you didn't care about the header, and you wanted to use the original file name, do this:
> mt -f $TAPE fsf 4
> dd if=$TAPE bs=16k of=ce66-2.evt
> mt -f $TAPE fsf 1
Note the 4 - skip three files for the first file on the tape and one for the next header. The second mt skips the second file's trailer and positions the tape at the beginning of the next file - the third VMS header. You can also use mt to skip backwards (bsf), rewind (rewind) and rewind and unload the tape (offline, rewoffl).
The header and trailer files contain uppercase ASCII data used by VMS to store file information such as block size. They also contain the file name, which can be handy if you want to build scripts that automate read files or search for a particular file. The first header on a tape volume is slightly different than subsequent headers.
For a file that is the first file on the tape, as in header1 of the above example, the first four characters will be "VOL1" followed by the volume name. In the example, header1 starts with "VOL1C66A2". This is followed by a series of spaces terminated with a numeral. After that is the string "HDR1" which indicates that this is a file header. The characters immediately following the HDR1 string are the VMS file name. In in the example, this is "HDR1CE66-2.EVT". The next field is the volume name again.
For files that are not the first file on the tape, the initial VOL1 field is not present. Other than that the header has the same structure as for the initial file. Another useful field is the 7th field, which will end with "DECFILES11A". This must be present on tapes that conform to the DEC Files11A standard.
field initial header subsequent headers
===== ============= ==================
1 VOL1 + volume name HDR1 + file name
2 3HDR1 + file name volume name
3 volume name
6 ...DECFILES11A
7 ...DECFILES11A
For full details on the header and trailer format, see the DEC FILES11A documentation (on the orange/grey wall - ask your local VMS folks :-).
In the example, I used a block size of 16k. On a *nix system, there is no block size associated with a file on disk while, under VMS, each file has a specific block size. That means that block size doesn't matter too much on the Linux end... unless it makes it hard to read the tape. If you have difficulty figuring out the block size and reading a tape, you can try setting the hardware block size on your tape drive using `mt -f $TAPE setblk 0'. The exact form of the setblk option (and its availability) may depend on the version of mt, the tape drive hardware interface and on your particular flavor of *nix.
(Thanks to Wojtek Skulski ( skulski@nsrlc6.nsrl.rochester.edu) for pointing out setblk.)
Unless otherwise stated, Linux HOWTO documents are copyrighted by their respective authors. Linux HOWTO documents may be reproduced and distributed in whole or in part, in any medium physical or electronic, as long as this copyright notice is retained on all copies. Commercial redistribution is allowed and encouraged; however, the author would like to be notified of any such distributions.
All translations, derivative works, or aggregate works incorporating any Linux HOWTO documents must be covered under this copyright notice. That is, you may not produce a derivative work from a HOWTO and impose additional restrictions on its distribution. Exceptions to these rules may be granted under certain conditions; please contact the Linux HOWTO coordinator at the address given below.
In short, we wish to promote dissemination of this information through as many channels as possible. However, we do wish to retain copyright on the HOWTO documents, and would like to be notified of any plans to redistribute the HOWTOs.
If you have questions, please contact Tim Bynum, the Linux HOWTO coordinator, at linux-howto@sunsite.unc.edu via email.
This work was written following the experience we had at the Settore di Geofisica of the Universita' di Bologna (Italy), where a VAX 4000 has been superseded and replaced by Linux-based Pentium PCs. Most of my colleagues are VMS users, and some of them have switched to Linux.
``From VMS to Linux HOWTO'' was written by Guido Gonzato, guido ``at'' ibogeo.df.unibo.it, and Mike Miller, miller5@uiuc.edu who contributed the section on reading VMS tapes. Many thanks to my colleagues and friends who helped me define the needs and habits of the average VMS user, especially to Dr. Warner Marzocchi.
Please help me improve this HOWTO. I'm not a VMS expert and never will be, so your suggestions and bug reports are more than welcome.
Enjoy,
Guido =8-)