Документ взят из кэша поисковой машины. Адрес оригинального документа : http://herba.msu.ru/shipunov/school/biol_240/en/visual_statistics.toc Дата изменения: Fri Apr 8 04:10:51 2016 Дата индексирования: Sun Apr 10 19:42:50 2016 Кодировка:

\contentsline {chapter}{Foreword}{6}{chapter*.2}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {1}The Data}{9}{chapter.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1.1}Origin of the data}{9}{section.1.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1.2}Population and sample}{10}{section.1.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1.3}How to obtain the data}{10}{section.1.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1.4}What to find in the data}{12}{section.1.4}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.4.1}Why we need the data analysis}{12}{subsection.1.4.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.4.2}What data analysis can do}{13}{subsection.1.4.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1.5}Answers to exercises}{13}{section.1.5}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {2}How to process the data}{15}{chapter.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.1}General purpose software}{15}{section.2.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.2}Statistical software}{16}{section.2.2}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.2.1}Graphical systems}{16}{subsection.2.2.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.2.2}Statistical environments}{16}{subsection.2.2.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.3}The very short history of the \textsf {S}\xspace and \textsf {R}\xspace }{17}{section.2.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.4}Use, advantages and disadvantages of the \textsf {R}\xspace }{17}{section.2.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.5}How to download and install \textsf {R}\xspace }{19}{section.2.5}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.6}How to start with \textsf {R}\xspace }{19}{section.2.6}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.6.1}Launching \textsf {R}\xspace }{19}{subsection.2.6.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.6.2}First steps}{20}{subsection.2.6.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.7}\textsf {R}\xspace and data: the view from outside}{21}{section.2.7}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.1}\textsf {R}\xspace as the overgrown calculator}{21}{subsection.2.7.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.2}How to load the data}{21}{subsection.2.7.2}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.3}How to save the results}{27}{subsection.2.7.3}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.4}Graphics}{28}{subsection.2.7.4}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.5}Graphical devices}{32}{subsection.2.7.5}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.6}Graphical options}{33}{subsection.2.7.6}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {2.7.7}Interactive graphics}{34}{subsection.2.7.7}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {2.8}Answers to exercises}{35}{section.2.8}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {3}Types of data}{36}{chapter.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.1}Degrees, hour and kilometers: measurement data}{36}{section.3.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.2}Grades: ranked data}{39}{section.3.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.3}Red, Yellow, Green: nominal data}{40}{section.3.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.4}Fractions, counts and ranks: secondary data}{46}{section.3.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.5}Missing data}{50}{section.3.5}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.6}Outliers, and how to find them}{52}{section.3.6}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.7}Changing data: basics of transformations}{52}{section.3.7}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.8}Inside \textsf {R}\xspace : Matrices, lists and data frames}{54}{section.3.8}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.8.1}Matrices}{54}{subsection.3.8.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.8.2}Lists}{57}{subsection.3.8.2}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.8.3}Data frames}{59}{subsection.3.8.3}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {3.8.4}How to convert vectors, matrices, lists and data frames}{62}{subsection.3.8.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {3.9}Answers to exercises}{62}{section.3.9}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {4}One-dimensional data}{64}{chapter.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.1}How to estimate general tendencies}{64}{section.4.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.2}Bad data}{76}{section.4.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.3}One-dimensional statistical tests}{77}{section.4.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.4}How to create your own functions}{81}{section.4.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.5}Are the percentages always accurate?}{82}{section.4.5}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {4.6}Answers to exercises}{83}{section.4.6}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {5}Analysis of relationships: Two-dimensional data}{88}{chapter.5}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.1}What is a statistical test?}{88}{section.5.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.1.1}Statistical hypotheses}{88}{subsection.5.1.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.1.2}Statistical errors}{89}{subsection.5.1.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.2}Is there a difference? Comparing two samples}{90}{section.5.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.3}Effect sizes}{96}{section.5.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.4}Is there an association? Analysis of tables}{97}{section.5.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.5}Analysis of correlations}{105}{section.5.5}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.6}Analysis of regression}{111}{section.5.6}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {5.6.1}Analysis of covariation}{116}{subsection.5.6.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.7}Probability of the success: logistic regression}{122}{section.5.7}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.8}If there are more than two samples: ANOVA}{126}{section.5.8}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {5.9}Answers to exercises}{129}{section.5.9}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {6}Analysis of structure: Data mining}{139}{chapter.6}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6.1}Drawing the multivariate data}{140}{section.6.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.1.1}3D scatterplots}{140}{subsection.6.1.1}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.1.2}Pictographs}{142}{subsection.6.1.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6.2}The shadows of multidimensional clouds: principal component analysis}{145}{section.6.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6.3}Classification without learning: cluster analysis}{152}{section.6.3}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {6.3.1}Correspondence analysis}{160}{subsection.6.3.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6.4}Classification with learning: discriminant analysis}{163}{section.6.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {6.5}Answers to exercises}{169}{section.6.5}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {7}Statistical workflow}{173}{chapter.7}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {7.1}Preliminary processing of the data}{173}{section.7.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {7.2}Finding the correct method of data analysis}{174}{section.7.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {7.3}The report}{174}{section.7.3}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {A}Example of \textsf {R}\xspace session}{179}{appendix.A}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {A.1}Starting...}{180}{section.A.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {A.2}Describing...}{181}{section.A.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {A.3}Plotting...}{183}{section.A.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {A.4}Testing...}{187}{section.A.4}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {A.5}Finishing...}{189}{section.A.5}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {B}\textsf {R}\xspace fragments}{190}{appendix.B}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {B.1}\textsf {R}\xspace and databases}{190}{section.B.1}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {B.2}\textsf {R}\xspace and time}{194}{section.B.2}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {B.3}\textsf {R}\xspace and bootstrap}{199}{section.B.3}
\contentsline {section}{\numberline {B.4}Answers to exercises}{203}{section.B.4}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {C}Essential \textsf {R}\xspace commands}{204}{appendix.C}
\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {D}The short \textsf {R}\xspace glossary}{206}{appendix.D}
\contentsline {chapter}{References}{211}{appendix*.3}