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УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ-ГЕОЛОГОВ 2 КУРСА

ЧАСТЬ 2

Н.Г.КИТКОВА, Т.Ю.САФЬЯННИКОВА







Рецензенты:

Д.г.-м.н., профессор МГУ имени М.В.Ломоносова Н.В.Короновский

К.ф.н., заведующая кафедрой иностранных языков РГГУ нефти и газа имени
Губкина Е.Ю.







Содержание

SECTION I. Natural Hazards.

Unit I. Geologic Hazards and Man

Unit II. Earthquakes

Unit III. Nature and causes of landslides

Unit IV. Avalanches

Unit V. Test Section

SECTION II. Amazing Earth.

Unit I. The Changing Earth

Unit II. Plate tectonics and man.

Unit III. The Deep-Earth-Gas Hypothesis.

Unit IV. Test Section























SECTION I. Natural Hazards.

Unit I. Geologic Hazards and Man

Focus on:

. общенаучная и терминологическая лексика
. образование и употребление видо-временных форм глагола
(Active/Passive)
. усеченная структура придаточных предложений (if recognized.)
. построение дефиниций

Revision:

. причастие I, II
. словосочетание/предложение
. слова заместители
. отрицательные аффиксы: in, un, ab, less

Text Study.
I
Geologic hazards are those geologic features and events that are
hazardous or harmful to the extent that they frequently result in
injuries or loss of life and property. Natural geologic processes which
have been going on for millions of years may become geologic hazards when
people get in the way. They include such adverse geologic phenomena as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides, subsidence,
tsunamis, soil creep, and avalanches. If not recognized, clearly
understood, and accounted for in the activities of man, almost any
geologic processes or features can become a geologic hazard.

Throughout history, there are many examples of geologic hazards which
have resulted in disaster and have greatly affected the activities of
man. Volcanic eruptions, such as those of Vesuvius, Krakotoa, and
Mt.Pelee are just a few examples. Ten great earthquakes in China between
the 11th and 12th centuries resulting in landslides and collapse of
loessal cliffs, killed 1,5 million people. The list of disasters caused
by "naturally occurring geologic hazards", or those hazards over which
man has no apparent control would indeed be lengthy.

Another category of geologic hazards is that of "man-induced hazards".
Man's activity has helped to change the rate at place of occurrence of
certain natural phenomena, resulting in hazards to himself. Some examples
of man-induced hazards include: land subsidence caused by withdrawal of
ground water and petroleum resulting in damage to foundations and other
structures, and landslides resulting from highway construction which
modifies stable slopes.

Both naturally occurring and man-induced geologic hazards are merely
normal geologic processes or events until man gets in the way; then these
processes or events become hazards. Earthquake are hazards when man lives
too close to the active fault area, volcanic eruptions become so when man
lives in close proximity to the volcano, and floods become hazards when
man inhabits the flood plain.

II

What can the geologist do about geologic hazards? Working with adequate
knowledge he can conduct proper geologic investigations that can be used
to prevent a geologic hazard from becoming a disaster. Recognition or
identification of a geologic hazard at a certain locality must first be
made. Once clearly identified and defined, there are several approaches
to solving the problem, depending on the type of hazard. One solution is
to avoid the problem by changing the proposed location of a structure
such as a reservoir, nuclear power plant or highway.This solution is
often necessary in the case of naturally occurring hazards. Other
alternatives are to eliminate the hazard. Normally, the latter approaches
are more costly than avoiding the problem. The urgency to avoid or
prevent geologic hazards is a necessary outgrowth of a society
characterized by increasing population and urbanization.

What hope do we have for eliminating disasters caused by geologic
hazards? There is little hope that they can be eliminated completely, but
they could be greatly reduced with an understanding of the geologic
aspects of the environment. Hopefully, prediction and control of many
geologic hazards will become a reality in the near future.



Ex.1.
Найдите в тексте и выпишите английские эквиваленты следующим словам и
выражениям:
. необдуманное вторжение и неправильное использование геологической
среды
. до такой степени, что
. приносить вред, приводить к потерям жизни и собственности
. становиться преградой на пути чего-либо
. неблагоприятные и противоречивые геологические явления
. на протяжении истории
. приводить к разрушениям
. оказывать влияние на деятельность человека
. геологические катастрофы, являющиеся следствием природных процессов
. геологические катастрофы, являющиеся следствием деятельности человека
. район геологического сдвига (сброса)
. проводить геологические исследования
. предотвращать геологические катастрофы
. существует несколько подходов к решению данной проблемы
. преуменьшать угрозу геологической катастрофы
. исключить разрушения, вызванные катастрофой

Ex.2.
Сгруппируйте слова в зависимости от их произношения:
flood; mood; foot; blood; good; wood
[(]:__________
[u]:__________

Ex.3.
«третий лишний» (по значению)
stupid - unwise - abuse
careful - cautious - carefree
adverse - harmful - favourable


Ex.4.
Подберите правильный вариант значения выделенного слова.
A неразумный
1. unwise
2. unwell
B неуместный, неподходящий
1. inert
2. inept
C неосторожный
1. careful
2. careless
D предотвращать
1. to prevent
2. to predict
E ущерб
1. danger
2. damage
F рана
1. injury
2. urgency
G объяснять
1. to account
2. to account for
H предсказывать
3. to prevent
4. to predict

Ex.5.
Подберите пару.
|предсказывать опасность |to eliminate a hazard |
|предотвращать опасность |to predict a hazard |
|определять опасность |to prevent a hazard |
|уменьшать опасность |to avoid a hazard |
|избегать опасности |to identify a hazard |

|1 - |2 - |3 - |4 - |5 - |

Ex.6.
Заполните пропуски соответствующими словами из рамки.
damage; hazard; danger; disaster; injury
1. Loss of attractiveness, value, etc is called ________
2. Physical ________ to a living being is called ________
3. Event that causes great ________ is called ________
4. Chance of suffering ________ or ________ is called ________
5. Thing or event that can cause ________ is called ________

Ex.7.
Дайте определения следующим понятиям:
Hazard - .
Danger - .
Damage - .
Disarster - .
Injury - .


Ex.8.
«Что есть что?»
|event that can cause danger |abuse |
|wrong or bad treatment of sth/sb |injury |
|conditions effecting people's life |hazard |
|physical harm to a living being |environment |
|event that causes great damage |disarster |

Ex.9.
Какие из приведенных ниже высказываний являются предложениями, а какие
словосочетаниями? Трансформируйте словосочетания в предложения.
1. geologic processes going on for millions of years
2. any geologic process can become a geologic hazard
3. some geologic hazards having resulted in disaster
4. many geologic hazards have affected the activity of man
5. a lot of earthquakes resulting in landslides
6. some naturally occurring hazards
7. many disasters are caused by geologic hazards
8. some geologic hazards induced by man
9. several approaches to solving the problem
10. increasing population and urbanization

Ex.10.
Выберите правильный вариант.
1. Geologic processes ______ for millions of years.
a. going on
b. went on
c. has gone on
d. have been going on
2. If geologic processes ______, they can become geologic hazards.
a. recognize
b. recognized
c. are not recognized
d. is not recognized
3. If ______, geological processes can become geologic hazards.
a. recognize
b. recognized
c. not recognized
d. are not recognized
4. Many disasters ______ by naturally occurring geologic hazards.
a. caused
b. have caused
c. are caused
d. causing
5. Prediction of many geological hazards ______ a reality in the near
future.
a. becomes
b. has become
c. become
d. will become

Ex.11.
Подготовьте текст для чтения вслух и устного перевода.

Ex.12.
Передайте содержание русского текста о природных катастрофах на английском
языке.
Природные катастрофы чрезвычайно разнообразны. Некоторые катастрофы
возникают под земной поверхностью, другие - на ней, третьи - в водной
оболочке (гидросфере), а последние - в воздушной оболочке (атмосфере)
Земли.

Какие процессы способствуют возникновению этих катастроф? Землетрясения и
вулканические извержения, воздействуя снизу на земную поверхность, приводят
к поверхностным катастрофам, таким, как оползни или цунами. Прочие
поверхностные катастрофы возникают под воздействием процессов в атмосфере,
где происходит выравнивание перепадов температур и давления, и энергия
передается в одной поверхности.

Как и между всеми природными процессами, между природными катастрофами
существует взаимная связь. Одна катастрофа оказывает влияние на другую,
бывает, первая катастрофа служит спусковым механизмом последующих.

Наиболее тесная зависимость существует между землетрясениями и цунами.
Землетрясения могут вызывать оползни. Между землетрясениями и
вулканическими извержениями связь взаимная: известны землетрясения,
вызванные вулканическими извержениями, и, наоборот, вулканические
извержения, обусловленные быстрым перемещением масс под поверхностью Земли.
Атмосферные возмущения и обильные дожди могут оказать влияние на оползание
склонов.

Катастрофы принято условно делить на большие и малые. Однако, граница между
этими двумя группами не вполне определенная. О величине катастрофы зачастую
судят по числу жертв и размерам ущерба, нежели по размерам области, ею
пораженной. Следовательно, воздействие на людей является при определении
размера природных катастроф самым важным. Предпосылкой успешной защиты от
природных катастроф является познание причин возникновения и их механизма.
Зная сущность процессов, можно их предсказывать.



Ex.13.
Подготовьте сообщение/презентацию на тему: «Роль человека в возникновении
природных катастроф».





































Unit II. Earthquakes.

Focus on:

. общенаучная и терминологическая лексика
. видо-временные формы глагола и их употребление
. построение дефиниций

Revision:
употребление:
. some/any/no
. most/a most/the most
. little/few/a few
. because/because of
. until/unless
. though/although/through

Text Study.


I

Seismic phenomena, or earthquakes, are the most terrible catastrophes
occurring in nature. A strong earthquake may destroy whole towns in the
course of several minutes and even seconds.

The typical large earthquake starts with fracturing within the earth
where rocks are subjected to increasing strain until they break. The
sudden fracturing is violent enough to vibrate the surrounding solid
rocks. These vibrations, called seismic waves, pass through the earth
like waves through water: they compress and expand materials in their
path or shift it from side to side. Seismic waves travel over the whole
surface of the earth and penetrate to its very center.

Although heavy losses may be due directly to fault movement, most of the
property damage and loss of life in earthquakes are caused by seismic
waves shaking the ground. The waves originate at the fault but spread out
from it with such intensity that serious damages result one or two
hundred miles away.

While the degree of shaking tends off with distance from the center of
disturbance, it varies greatly depending on the solidity of the ground on
which structures stand, other circumstances being equal, the intensity of
shaking, and, consequently, the destructive effects are much greater on
unconsolidated foundation than they are on firm rocks.


II

It has been scientifically proved that the majority of earthquakes are
directly connected with mountain-making processes and generally occur in
young mountains which have not yet ceased growing.

However, in some cases earthquakes may occur in older mountains, in which
the mountain-making processes have been revived. Almost all the
destructive earthquakes which have occurred within living memory belong
to this class of the so-called tectonic earthquakes.

However, there are other seismic phenomena which are not directly
connected with mountain-making processes. These are known as volcanic
earthquakes. Volcanic earthquakes are due to the explosion of volcanic
gases, when the free escape of magma from the vent of the volcanic crater
to the earth's surface is in some way obstructed. Such shocks usually
take place during periods of violent volcanic eruptions and may be the
cause of terrible catastrophes and destructions. But they do not spread
over areas as large as those involved in tectonic earthquakes.

Besides the above mentioned earthquakes there are others known as
collapse earthquakes. These ossur mostly in the regions where readily
soluble rocks are widely distributed. Some regions contain underground
caves which are sometimes very large. It is clear that if the roofs of
such caves are not sufficiently strong, they may give way under the
weight of overlying strata and fall down into the cave. This latter type
of earthquake has a very limited range of action.



Ex.1.
Найдите в тексте и выпишите английские эквиваленты следующим словам и
выражениям:
. в течение нескольких минут
. растрескивание; внезапное растрескивание
. подвергаться возрастающему напряжению
. проходить через землю подобно морским волнам
. сжимать и расширять материалы
. передвигать из стороны в сторону
. проникать в центр земли
. тяжелые потери
. затухать с расстоянием от центра нарушения
. изменяться в зависимости от прочности почвы
. при прочих равных условиях
. следовательно
. разрушительное влияние
. тем не менее, однако
. быть непосредственно связанными с .
. свободное извержение магмы из жерла вулкана
. кроме вышеупомянутых .
. легко растворимые породы
. понятно, что .
. иметь ограниченный диапазон действия
. было научно доказано, что.

Ex.2.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных ниже.
1) The whole towns may be destroyed ______ several minutes.
a. because of
b. of course
c. in the course of
2) Rocks are subjected to increasing strain ______ they break.
a. unless
b. until
c. till
3) Seismic waves pass ______ the earth like waves pass ______ water.
a. though
b. through
c. although
4) ______ heavy losses may be due to fault movements most are caused by
seismic waves.
a. though
b. although
c. through

Ex.3.
Замените выделенные слова/словосочетания словами из текста.
1. The sudden fracturing is strong enough to shake the surrounding rocks.
2. In spite of the fact that heavy losses may be caused directly by fault
movement, the majority of losses results from seismic waves.
3. The degree of shaking decreases with distance from the center of
disturbance.

Ex.4.
Выберите правильный вариант перевода выделенных слов.
1) There are regions where readily soluable rocks are widely distributed.
a. хорошо растворимые
b. плохо растворимые
2) The roofs of some caves may give way under the weight of overlying
strata.
a. уступить
b. сопротивляться

Ex.5.
Выберите вариант, эквивалентный по значению русскому слову, предложенному в
скобках.
1) (Любой) geological process can become a geologic hazard.
a. any
b. some
2) Only (некоторые) geological hazards have resulted in disarster.
a. few
b. a few
3) (Большинство) terrible catastrophes occurred in nature are
earthquakes.
a. the most
b. most
4) In (некоторых) cases earthquakes may occur in older mountains.
a. same
b. some
5) A strong earthquake may destroy the whole town (в течение) of several
minutes.
a. in the course
b. in the case

Ex.6. Заполните пропуски, выбрав слова из рамки.
|The degree of shaking tends ______ with distance |Off |
|from the center of disturbance. |Through |
|The typical earthquakes starts with fracturing |Within |
|______ the earth. |Like |
|Seismic waves pass ______ the earth. |Although |
|______ heavy losses may be due to fault movements|Unlike |
|most damages are caused by seismic waves. | |

Ex.7.
Найдите и исправьте лексико-грамматические и/или смысловые ошибки там, где
они есть.
1) Heavy losses may cause fault movements.
2) The destructive effect is more greater on unconsolidated foundations.
3) Seismic phenomena is one of the most terrible geologic catastrophes.
4) Except the tectonic and volcanic earthquakes there are other known as
collapse earthquakes.
5) Many geological hazards result from disasters.
6) Man-induced hazards result in man's activity.
7) Withdrawal of ground water is caused by land subsidence.
8) Prediction of all geologic hazards has already become a reality.

Ex.8.
Раскройте скобки, выбрав правильный вариант.
1) (Except/besides) the above mentioned earthquakes (there/they) are
(other/others) known as collapse earthquakes.
2) Collapse earthquakes occur (most/mostly) in the regions where
(ready/readily) soluable rocks are (wide/widely) distributed.
3) The roofs of (some/same) caves are not (sufficient/sufficiently)
strong and may (fall/fell) down into the cave. This (latter/later)
type has a very limited range of action.
4) (Throughout/though) history there are (many/much) severe earthquakes
which (result/have resulted) in disasters.
5) (However/nowhere), there (is/are) other seismic phenomena which
(are/is) not directly connected with mountain-making processes.
6) Although heavy (loses/losses) may be (caused/coursed) by fault
movements, (many/most) damage is due to seismic waves.

Ex.9.
Трансформируйте следующие словосочетания в предложения:
. catastrophes occurring in nature
. rocks subjected to increasing strain
. seismic waves shaking the ground
. the degree of shaking depending on the solidity of the ground
. mountain-making processes
. earthquakes connected with mountain-making processes

Ex.10.
Дополните предложения, использую информацию из текста.
1) The majority of earthquakes generally occur in young mountains which
(nonstop growing).
2) Some earthquakes may occur in older mountains in which mountain-making
process (to revive).
3) It (to prove) that most earthquakes are directly connected with
mountain-making processes.

Ex.11.
Дайте определения понятиям из левой колонки, выбрав соответствующую
информацию из правой.
|Aseismic ridge is ... |a fracture in rock along which displacement |
| |has occurred |
|Body waves are ... |a series of quakes that follow a large quake |
|Fault is ... |aseismic region bounded by moving segments |
|Fold is ... |a bend in rock |
|Foreshock is ... |a submarine mountain chain with little or no |
| |seismic activity |
|Aftershock is ... |a measure of the effects of an earthquake at a|
| |particular place on buildings and people |
|Seismic gap is ... |seismic waves that travel through the interior|
| |of the Earth |
|Intensity of an earthquake|a small earthquake that precedes a large quake|
|is ... | |

|1 - |3 - |5 - |7 - |
|2 - |4 - |6 - |8 - |

Ex.12.
Найдите и исправьте лексические и/или грамматические ошибки в следующем
тексте, приведите свой вариант текста.
What we can do about geologic hazards?
Both naturally occurred and man-induced hazards are normal geologically
processes or events unless man gets in the way. Earthquakes are hazards
when man live to close to the active fold area. There is several approaches
to solving the problem. Some solution is too avoid the problem, another
alternatives are too eliminate the hazard. The later approaches are more
costly.

Ex.13.
Подготовьте текст для чтения вслух и устного перевода.

Ex.14.
Передайте содержание русского текста о землетрясениях на английском языке.
Землетрясения являются наиболее грозными природными катастрофами по числу
жертв, размерам ущерба, по величине охваченных ими территорий и по
трудности защиты от них.

Половина человечества живет в сейсмически активных областях, т.е. в
районах, где могут происходить разрушительные землетрясения. Поверхность
нашей планеты пересекают сейсмически активные зоны, они проходят через все
континенты и океаны.

Землетрясения не распределяются по земной поверхности равномерно,
напротив, они сосредоточены в отдельных узких зонах. Некоторые эпицентры
приурочены к материкам, другие - к их окраинам, а третьи - ко дну океанов.

Упомянутые зоны являются границами литосферных плит. Плиты перемещаются по
пластичной подстилающей прослойке, именуемой астеносферой. Каждая
внезапная подвижка плит может привести к землетрясению.

Все землетрясения, причиной которых является движение или смещение плит,
называются тектоническими. Вблизи вулканов происходят вулканические
землетрясения, вызванные вулканической деятельностью, в связи с прорывом
лавы из глубин к поверхности. Такие землетрясения называются
вулканическими. Известны также землетрясения, связанные с обрушением
пород, но они случаются сравнительно редко.

Большинство землетрясений возникает в результате внезапных перемещений
горных масс по нарушениям в земной коре либо в мантии. Перемещения
вызываются огромными напряжениями.

Известно, что землетрясениям подвержена 1/10 поверхности континентов.
Многие области с наиболее высокой плотностью населения относят к
территориям с наибольшим сейсмическим риском.

Чем больше сейсмическая опасность и чем страна в хозяйственном и
политическом отношении более развита, тем больше принимается мер для
защиты населения от сейсмических катастроф.


Ex.15.
Подготовьте сообщение/презентацию на тему: Землетрясения, Причины, Типы,
Условия возникновения.


Unit III. Nature and causes of landslides.

Focus on:

. терминологическая лексика
. видо-временные формы глагола и их употребление

Revision:
. «any» в повествовательном предложении
. значения «as»
. either . or/ neither . nor
. like/unlike
. later/latter

Text Study.
I

Landslides take place in widely differing rock types and are of most
conceivable size and shape. They are found at elevations ranging from lofty
mountain peaks to the sea floor, and occur in every climate from frigid
arctic to humid tropic and arid desert. The resulting wide range of
variables produces many different kinds or types of landslides.

A complex landslide consists of any combination of the three basic types.

Falls are limited to the free falling of earth material of any size. The
name "fall" is modified depending upon the principal material involved:
rock fall, debris fall, and soil fall.

Slides (rock slides, debris slides, and soil slides) occur where movement
takes place on one or more shear or slip surfaces and the affected mass
consists of single to numerous segments bounded by slip surfaces.

Flows, the third general type of landslide movement, occur where the
displaced mass is deformed and moves like a viscous fluid.



II

Landsliding is an important agent shaping the earth's surface and it has
been active as long as there have been natural slopes. As canyons are cut
by running water, or as mountains are thrust upward, the force of gravity
periodically pulls down masses of earth materials from exposed slopes. This
process produces much of the debris that is later carried away by streams
and rivers to be deposited as sediments in intermountain basis and on the
ocean floor.

Technically, landslides are part of a more general category of erosional
processes called mass-wasting - the term applied by geologists to the
process of downslope movement of earth's materials, primarily by gravity.
This movement, either slow or rapid, occurs when the strength of the
material is exceeded by the force of gravity. Creep is that part of mass-
wasting in which earth materials with poorly defined bounds move at
imperceptibly slow rates. When a discrete unit (or units) of earth
materials moves perceptibly, it is termed a landslide.

III

The causes of landsliding can be traced to the inherent properties of the
rocks, and to external factors related to the geologic setting.

The inherent properties of a rock unit which may lead to a "slide-prone"
conduction include low strength minerals possessing perfect cleavage rocks
that swell. External conditions that cause landslides range from gravity,
which is always present, through erosion and rainfall, which are commonly
or periodically present, to earthquakes, which are infrequent. Commonly a
landslide results from inherent properties plus external conditions.

The activities of man must be considered an external cause contributing to
the triggering of some spectacular landslides.



Ex.1.
Найдите в тексте и выпишите английские эквиваленты следующим словам и
выражениям:
. широко отличающиеся друг от друга типы пород
. иметь размеры и форму, какую только можно вообразить
. находиться в диапазоне от . до
. широкий диапазон переменных величин
. ограничиваться свободным падением материалов
. изменяться в зависимости от основных «задействованных» материалов
. поверхности вертикальных и горизонтальных сдвигов
. ограничиваться поверхностью сдвига
. двигаться подобно потоку тягучей жидкости
. важный фактор, изменяющий поверхность земли
. подобно тому, как
. производить большое количество обломочного материала
. откладываться в виде сегментов
. с технической точки зрения
. движение вниз по склону
. либо . либо
. слабо выраженные связи
. двигаться с неуловимо медленной скоростью
. причины оползней
. внутренние свойства пород
. условия, способствующие оползням
. обладать совершенной спайностью
. привести в движение (стимулировать) оползни

Ex.2.
Подберите пары слов, близких по значению.
|high |humid |
|cold |lofty |
|wet |arid |
|dry |inherent |
|internal |basic |
|main |frigid |

|1 - |3 - |5 - |
|2 - |4 - |6 - |

Ex.3.
Подберите пары слов, противоположных по смыслу.
|perceptibly |downward |
|conceivable |specific |
|upward |imperceptibly |
|commonly |infrequently |
|general |rarely |
|frequently |inconceivable |

|1 - |3 - |5 - |
|2 - |4 - |6 - |

Ex.4.
Раскройте скобки. Проверьте по тексту.
1. The name "fall" is (to modify) (to depend) upon the principle material
(to involve).
2. Sliding (to occur) where the (to affect) mass (to consist) of numerous
segments (to bound) by slip surfaces.
3. Flows (to occur) where the (to displace) mass is (to deform) and (to
move) like a viscous fluid.

Ex.5.
Вставьте нужные предлоги.
|Landsliding occur .. elevations .. |in |
|different climatic zones, ranging .. |to |
|frigid .. arid regions. The name "fall" |at |
|is modified depending .. the principle |upon |
|material involved. |from |

Ex.6.
Определите, какой частью речи являются выделенные слова в предложениях:
> External conditions that cause landslides range from gravity to
earthquakes.
o существительное
o глагол
> The wide range of variables produces many types of landslides.
o существительное
o глагол
> The causes of landsliding can be traced to internal and external
factors.
o существительное
o глагол

Ex.7.
Выберите правильный вариант.
1. The products of landsliding are ______ deposited on the ocean floor.
a. letter
b. later
c. latter
d. late
2. A complex landslide consists of ______ combination of the three basic
types.
a. some
b. same
c. one
d. any
3. The resulting range of ______ produces many different types of
landslides.
a. various
b. variety
c. vary
d. variables

Ex.8.
Найдите и исправьте языковые ошибки в следующих предложениях.
1. Different variables produces widely differing types of landslides.
2. A wide range of variables produce many types of landslides.
3. Free falling of earth materials are called "falls".
4. Landsliding produces many debris, that is latter carried away by
streams.
5. External conditions range from gravity though erosion to earthquakes.

Ex.9.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных.
1. Landsliding is active where ______ natural slopes.
a. there are
b. are
c. there are
d. there is
2. Landsliding has been active as long as ______ natural slopes.
a. have been
b. has been
c. there have been
d. there are
3. Landsliding ______ active as long as there have been natural slopes.
a. is
b. there is
c. there have been
d. has been
4. Landsliding ______ active when there are natural slopes.
a. there is
b. is
c. there are
d. there have been

Ex.10.
Дайте определения следующим понятиям, используя различные модели построения
дефиниций.

. mass wasting
. creep
. falls
. slides
. flows

Ex.11.
Сравните основные типы оползней. Используйте слова и выражения из рамки.
like; unlike; while; to differ; to be different; to be similar

Ex.12.
Подготовьте «базовый» текст для чтения вслух и устного перевода.

Ex.13.
Передайте содержание русского текста «Оползни» на английском языке.
Оползни могут быть вызваны действием разных факторов. Земная поверхность
вся состоит, главным образом, из склонов. Некоторые из них устойчивы,
другие в силу различных условий становятся неустойчивыми.
Оползни возникают тогда, когда природными процессами или людьми нарушается
устойчивость склона. Это происходит тогда, когда изменяется угол откоса
склона или если склон оказывается отягощен рыхлым материалом. Тем самым
сила тяжести оказывается больше силы связности грунта, в какой-то момент
вся масса приходит в движение и может произойти катастрофа.
Неустойчивости склона способствует и повышение обводненности грунтов,
рыхлых отложений или горных пород. Вода заполняет поры и нарушает сцепление
между частицами грунта. Связность горных пород может быть нарушена и при
замерзании, и в процессах выветривания, или связана с изменениями вида
насаждений либо уничтожения растительного покрова. Склон становится
нестабильным и при сотрясениях. При сильных землетрясениях оползни
возникают всегда.
Земляные массы могут сползать по склонам с едва заметной скоростью. В
других случаях скорость смещения продуктов выветривания более высокая,
иногда большие объемы горных пород обрушиваются со скоростью, превышающей
скорость экспресса. Только быстрые оползни могут стать причиной настоящих
катастроф.
Оползни могут разрушать жилища и подвергать опасности целые населенные
пункты. Они угрожают сельскохозяйственным угодьям, создают опасность при
добыче полезных ископаемых. Оползни повреждают коммуникации, туннели,
трубопроводы, телевизионные и электрические сети.
Наиболее действенной защитой от оползней является их предупреждение. В
настоящее время имеется целый ряд комплексных предупредительных
мероприятий, разработанных специалистами по инженерной геологии, механике
грунтов и строительной технике. Здесь важны и степень готовности и быстрота
действий: на более поздних этапах борьба с оползневыми процессами требует
значительно больших усилий.

Ex.14.
Подготовьте сообщение/презентацию на тему: Оползни, Типы и причины.



Unit IV. Avalanches.

Focus on:
. терминологическая лексика
. видо-временные формы глагола и их употребление

Revision:
. mean/means/by all means/by no means
. слова-заместители that/those
. суффиксы частей речи
. употребление other/another/the other/others
. as/since/because/because of
. усилительная конструкция «it is . that (which)

Text
Study.
I
The hazard of snow avalanches to life and property increases from year to
year. It is enhanced by the general rise in population, which places more
communities and structures in the hazardous areas; by the growing
popularity of skiing, which attracts ever more thousands to the snowy
mountainslides, and by the expanding networks of communications - highways,
pipelines, power lines, electronic relay systems - whose mountain crossings
must be protected. Concern about the avalanche problem is by no means new,
but in recent years there has been an intensification of efforts to find
effective ways of controlling hazard. Several useful techniques have been
developed, and other interesting ideas are under study.
There are two basically different types of snowslide, one much more
dangerous than the other. They are known respectfully as "loose snow"
avalanches and "slab" avalanches.
Loose-snow slides occur frequently, but they seldom grow very large or
cause much damage. It is the slab type of avalanche, which sets in motion
as one massive body a large area of snow, that presents the principal
menace and is the main object of control efforts.
Investigations of the predisposing conditions are focused essentially on
the structure and nature of the snow itself, particularly its cohesion.
This has two aspects: on the one hand, the strength of bonding between the
snow crystals within a layer; on the other, the degree of bonding of one
layer to another. Cohesion between the snow particles depends in large part
on the age and nature of the snow crystals, which vary considerably in
form. Crystals of certain compact, nonstellar types tend to become firmly
cemented together. Weather conditions also play a part: strong bonding
between crystals is encouraged by windpacking and by riming - the accretion
of supercooled water droplets as the snow is deposited.

II
The most elementary defense against avalanches is to attempt to forecast
their occurrence so that people and transient traffic can be warned to stay
clear. Although physical studies and experience have armed us with many
clues, avalanche forecasting is still an art rather than a science. The
variables that determine when conditions are ripe for the triggering of a
slide are numerous and complex. It is difficult to measure the mechanical
properties of snow samples with any precision even in the laboratory,
because the characteristics of a sample can change rapidly while it is
being handled. There are, however, significant factors that can be measured
in the field: the density and thickness of the snow slab, the size of the
load compared with the shear strength of the substratum, certain patterns
of the snow structure. With information thus obtained it is possible to
predict quite accurately the probability of the occurrence of avalanches
within the given area. It is not possible, however, to forecast precisely
where and when a slide will take place, because of unknown variables such
as the existence of creep tensions and the unpredictability of the various
natural or manmade shocks (earth tremors, construction blasting or the
like) that can trigger the fracture of a slab.

III
Today there are available a number of engineering techniques for control of
avalanches, some providing passive defence (protection against actual
slides), others designed to prevent their occurrence. Fundamentally there
are two different ways to prevent or control avalanches: (1) modification
of the terrain and (2) modification of the snow. Which includes the
deliberate release of slides when and where they will do little or no harm.
The first general method is expensive and requires continued maintenance,
but it is reasonably permanent and offers maximum protection. The second is
comparatively cheap but must be applied repeatedly, perhaps many times each
winter. Modification of the terrain is usually chosen when the problem is
to protect a large area or fixed installations; modification of the snow is
employed most commonly for protecting highways and ski slopes.

Ex.1.
Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующим словам и выражениям.
. возрастать с каждым годом
. возрастающая популярность катания на лыжах
. заснеженные горные склоны
. возрастающие сети средств связи
. пересечения различных средств связи в горах
. озабоченность проблемой снежных лавин
. никоим образом
. за последние годы
. способы контроля угрозы
. разрабатывать полезные методики
. находиться в стадии разработки
. приводить в движение
. представлять собой главную угрозу
. с одной стороны . с другой стороны
. сила сцепления между кристаллами в пределах слоя
. связь между частицами
. играть роль
. скорее искусство, нежели наука
. получать информацию
. непредсказуемость различных природных и человеческих факторов
. провоцировать возникновение трещины в снежном массиве

Ex.2.
Замените выделенные слова словами из текста.
1. The hazard of snow avalanche rises from year to year.
2. Loose-slow slides occur often, but rarely cause much damage.
3. Investigations are focused mainly on the nature of snow itself
4. The nature of snow crystals change considerably in form.
5. The characteristics of a sample can change quickly.
6. The second method must be used many times each winter.

Ex.3.
Какие из приведенных предложений содержат усилительную конструкцию. Дайте
перевод.
1. It is enchanced by the general rise of population which places more
structures in the hazardous areas.
2. It is the general rise of population which enchanced the hazard of
snow avalanches.
3. It is difficult to measure the mechanical properties of snow samples
which are under study.
4. It is the mechanical properties of snow samples which are difficult to
measure.
5. It is the slab type of avalanche that is the main object of control
efforts.
6. It is not possible to forecast the various natural and man-maid shocks
that can trigger the avalanche.
7. It is the various natural and man-maid shocks that are difficult to
forecast.

Ex. 4.
Раскройте скобки, выбрав правильную видо-временную форму глагола.
1. In recent years there (are/have been) an intensification of studies.
2. Recently several useful techniques (were/have been) developed.
3. Now some interesting ideas (are/have been) under study.
4. Today there (are/have been) a number of techniques for control of
avalanche.
5. It is difficult to measure mechanical properties of a snow sample
because characteristics can change rapidly while it (is being/has
been) handled.


Ex.5.
Заполните пропуски нужными предлогами из колонки справа.
Concern ........ the avalanche problem is ...
-under
no means new. Several interesting ideas
-within
are ... study.
-about
Investigations are focused on the nature ...
-on
snow itself and the strength of bonding ...
-in
the crystals ... a layer.
-by

Cohesion between the snow particles
-between

depends ... large part ... the nature of
-of
snow crystals.
Ex.6.
Употребите вместо выделенных слов заменяемые ими существительные.
1. Another category of geologic hazards is that of man-induced hazards.
2. Volcanic eruptions do not spread over areas as large as those involved
in tectonic earthquakes.
3. The separation of subsidence phenomena due to fluid withdrawal into
those caused by exploration of oil and gas fields and those caused by
pumping of ground water seems highly arbitrary.
4. The length of time of known human history is very short as compared to
that of known geologic time.

Ex.7.
Составьте пары слов близких по смыслу.

1. to account for
1. various
2. adverse
2. lead to
3. hazardous
3. to explain
4. to result in
4. harmful
5. to result from
5. to be caused by
6. to effect
6. to happen
7. to occur
7. to influence
8. to reduce
8. to eliminate
9.
|1- |3- |5- |7- |
|2- |4- |6- |8- |

Ex.8.
Трансформируйте следующие словосочетания в предложения.
1. the fluid removed
2. the principles involved
3. the affected mass
4. debris deposited by water
5. the term appried by geologists
6. areas involved in tectonic earthquakes


Ex.9.
Образуйте существительные от следующих глаголов, используя следующие
суффиксы.

| -ing -sion -ence |
|-tion -ment |


7. to forecast
8. to cohere
9. to ski
10. to protect
11. to expand
12. to cross
13. to measure

Ex. 10.
Составьте пары слов, близких по смыслу.
1. сравнительно 1. particularly
2. непрерывно 2. partially
3. соответственно 3. precisely
4. особенно 4. respectful

5. в основном 5. comparatively
6. часто 6.
essentially
7. частично 7. continually
8. точно 8.
frequently
9. за последнее время 9. basically
10. главным образом 10.reasonably
11. ежегодно 11.recently
12. разумно 12.annually

|1- |3- |5- |7- |9- |11- |
|2- |4- |6- |8- |10- |12- |


Ex. 11.
Заполните пропуски, выбрав правильный вариант из предложенных:
other/another/the other/others
1. There are many types of snow slides, some of them much more
dangerous than __________.
2. There are two types of slides, one much more dangerous than
___________.
3. There is ___________ approach to the avalanche problem.
4. The problem has two aspects: on the one hand ........... on
__________...........

Ex. 12.
Вставьте подходящее по смыслу слово.
1. One of the methods to control avalanches is expensive but
__________
permanent and offers maximum protection
a) reasonably
b) respectfully
c) recently
d) repeatedly
2. Another method to control avalanches is __________ cheap
but must be applied many times each winter

a) annually
b) comparatively
c) continually
d) constantly
3. ____________ there has been an intensification of efforts to
finol effective ways of controlling hazards
a) rapidly
b) essentially
c) frequently
d) recently
4. Investigations are focused on the nature of snow, __________
on its cohesion
a) partially
b) particularly
c) partly
d) precisely


Ex. 13.

Определите, какая информация не соответствует содержанию основного
текста. Предложите свой вариант. Найдите подтверждение в тексте.
What can the geologist do about avalanche problems? He can't
conduct proper investigations. He can't prevent a geologic hazard from
becoming a disaster. He can only identify and define a geologic hazard
at a certain locality. The solution of the avalanche problem does not
depend on the type of the hazard.
Ex. 14.
Какие из предложенных вариантов передают наиболее точно содержание
следующих
высказываний.
1. The avalanche problem is by no means new
a) ..... является безусловно новой
b) ... в некотором смысле является новой
с) ..... никоим образом не является
новой
2. Cohesion between the snow particles depends in large part on the age
and nature of snow crystals .
а) зависит
b) частично зависит
с) в значительной мере зависит

3. Weather conditions
also play a part.
а) имеют значение
b) не имеют значения
с) играют значительную роль
4. As canyons are cut by running water, the force of gravity pulls down
earth's fragments from exposed slopes.
a) в то время как
b) также как
с) так как

Ex. 15.
Заполните пропуски в тексте, используя информацию из правой колонки.
The avalanche problem is __________new. -on
the one hand
The problem has two aspects: ____________ -of
the strength of bonding ____________ the crystals -by no
means ___________ a layer; ____________, the
degree -between
of bonding _______________one layer _______ -on the
other hand
another.
-within

-to

Ex. 16.
Какой из предложенных английских вариантов перевода точнее соответствует
смыслу следующего высказывания:
|Существует ряд методик для контроля за лавинами, причем некоторые |
|методики обеспечивают пассивную защиту от оползней, тогда как другие |
|разработаны для того, чтобы предотвратить их наступление. |


a) There are a number of techniques for control of avalanches providing
passive defence and designed to prevent their occurrence;
b) There are a number of techniques for control of avalanches, some
providing passive defence, other designed to prevent their occurrence.
Ex. 17.
Дополните следующие предложения.
1. It is impossible to forecast precisely where and when a slide
will occur because ____________________________________ .
2. To measure the mechanical properties of samples is difficult
as __________________________________________ .
3. Avalanche problem is rather an art than a science since
_________________________________________________ .
4. The hazard of snow avalanches increases from year to year
because of_______________________________________ .
Ex. 18.
Подберите соответствующие определения следующим терминам.

|1. avalanche |any downslope movement of rock and |
|2. subsidence |regolith under the influence of |
|3. soil creep |gravity |
|4.earthquake |a sudden motion or trembling of the |
|5. landside |Earth caused by the abrupt release |
|6. tsunami |of slowly accumulated elastic energy|
| |in rock |
| |mass of snow that slides rapidly |
| |down the side of a mountain |
| |a large sea wave produced by a |
| |submarine earthquake or a volcano |
| |and characterized by great speed |
| |the slow movement of unconsolidated |
| |material downslope under the |
| |influence of gravity |
| |setting of the Earth's surface that |
| |can occur as either petroleum or |
| |ground water is removed by natural |
| |processes. |

|1- |3- |5- |
|2- |4- |6- |

Ex.19.
Подготовьте краткое изложение на английском языке основного содержания
русского текста о лавинах. (устно/письменно)
Лавины тоже относятся к оползням. Крупные снежные лавины являются
катастрофами, уносящими десятки жизней.
С точки зрения механики лавина возникает так же, как и другие оползневые
смещения. Силы сцепления снега переходят определенную границу, и гравитация
вызывает смещение снежных масс по склону.
Снежная лавина представляет собой смесь кристалликов снега и воздуха. Снег
быстро меняет свойства после своего выпадания, то есть подвергается
метаморфизму. Кристаллики снега растут, пористость снежной массы
уменьшается. На определенной глубине под поверхностью перекристаллизация
может привести к образованию поверхности скольжения, по которой пласт снега
сползает. Нарушение пласта снега в верхней части склона обычно приводит к
возникновению лавины.
Гладкие травянистые склоны являются лавиноопасными. Кустарники, большие
камни и другие препятствия такого рода сдерживают возникновение лавин. В
лесу лавины образуются очень редко, однако одиночные деревья на склоне не
препятствуют возникновению лавин.
По величине лавины делятся на большие, средние и малые. Большие уничтожают
на своем пути все жилища и деревья. Средние опасны лишь для людей, малые
практически не опасны.
Существует несколько косвенных причин возникновения лавин: неустойчивость
склона, перекристаллизация снега, образование плоскости скольжения, снежные
наносы с большим углом, чем склон. Прямой причиной часто является
сотрясение. И камень, упавший на снежное поле, может вызвать лавину.
Как и в случае других оползневых смещений, наиважнейшую роль здесь играют
превентивные меры. Важное значение представляют исследования
предшествовавших лавин, т.к. большинство из них спускается по одним и тем
же трассам.

Ex.20.
Подготовьте базовый текст для чтения вслух и перевода.

Ex.21.
Подготовьте сообщение/презентацию на тему: «Лавины. Типы. Способы
предотвращения».







Test Section
Раскройте скобки, выбрав правильный вариант из предложенных. Запишите свой
вариант предложения и дайте свой перевод на русский язык (устно).
1. The geologist can (conduct/conducts) proper investigations (predict/to
predict) a geologic hazard.
2. There (are/is) no geologic hazards (within/without) people.
3. The hazard (arise/arises) from (man/man's) abuse of geologic
environment.
4. Geologic hazard is (this/those) geologic event (that/what) is
(resulted/resulting) (in/from) loss of people.
5. Geologic hazards are dangerous to the (expand/extent) that they
(result in/result from) (loss/loose) of property of people.
6. Some geologic processes (have been going/have gone) on for millions of
years.
7. If not (recognizing/recognized) some geologic processes can become a
geologic hazard.
8. (Though/throughout) history there are (much/many) examples of geologic
hazards.
9. There are two types of geologic hazards: naturally
(occurred/occurring) and man (induced/inducing).
10. Land subsidence (caused/is caused) by withdrawal of ground water.
11. Land slides (result/results) from highway constructions.
12. Recently (a number/the number) of hazards (result/have resulted) in
disasters.
13. All geologic hazards are (normal/abnormal) geologic processes
(unless/until) man gets (on/in) the way.
14. Volcanic eruptions become hazards (when/then) (man/men) lives (to/too)
close to the active area.
15. Proper investigation can (use/be used) to prevent a geologic hazard
(becoming/to become) a disaster.
16. Once clearly (identified/identifying) there are some approaches to
(solving/dissolving) the problem of hazard.
17. There are (many/much) approaches to avoid the hazard problem. One
solution is to change the location of structures, (other/others)
solutions are to eliminate the hazard.
18. There are two (principle/principal) approaches to avoid the hazard
problem. One solution is to avoid the problem, (another/the other)
alternative is to eliminate the hazard.
19. Earthquakes is one of the (most/must) dangerous (phenomenon/phenomena)
(occurred/occurring) in nature.
20. A (whole/hole) town may be destroyed in the (course/cause) of several
minutes (due to/because) a strong earthquake.
21. The typical earthquake starts with fracturing (within/without) the
crust.
22. Seismic waves (pass/past) (through/though) the earth (likely/like)
water waves.
23. Seismic waves (travel/travelling) over the (hole/whole) surface of the
earth.
24. Seismic waves (shakes/shaking) the ground (cause/are caused) great
damages.
25. There are young mountains which (are not/have not) yet ceased growing.
26. There (is/are) seismic phenomena which (is/are) (indirect/indirectly)
(connected/connecting) with mountain-making processes.
27. Volcanic eruptions may be (caused/the cause) of terrible destructions.
28. Collapse earthquakes occur (most/mostly) in the regions where
(ready/readily) soluble rocks are (wide/widely)
(distributed/distributing).

41. The study of geology (has established/has been established) the great
fact that the life upon the earth is a single phase of a long history.
42. For untold millions of years rocks (have been crumbing/have been
crumbled) under the (whether/weather).
43. Vast sheets of ice (have spread/have been spread) over considerable
portions of continents.
44. During the eons of geologic time sea waters (spread/have spread) over
many parts of (that/what) are now continents.
45. Plants and animals (have inhabited/have been inhabited) the earth for
many millions of years.
46. Various parts of the earth (has been/have been) affected and are being
(affected/affecting) by sudden movements.
47. The effects (resulted/resulting) from combined action of weathering
and erosion account for (near/nearly) all the geological changes
(that/what) occur on the surface of the earth.
48. The characteristics of snow samples can change rapidly while they (are
being handled/are handling).
49. It's impossible to forecast when a slide (will take/takes) place.
50. There are significant factors (that/what) can be (measuring/measured)
in the field.
51. (Except/besides) the above (mentioned/mentioning) earthquakes there
are (other/ others) known as collapse earthquakes.
52. The destructive (effect/affect) is (more/much) greater on
unconsolidated rocks (then/than) on firm (one/ones).
53. It is impossible to forecast (precisely/recently) (where/there) and
(when/then) a slide (occur/will occur).
54. To measure the mechanical properties of samples (is/are) not simple.
55. Avalanche problem is (rather/further) an art (than/then) a science.
56. Today (there/their) (is/are) available (a number/the number) of
engineering techniques for control of avalanches.
57. The are two different ways to prevent or control avalanches: 1)
modification of terrain, 2) modification of snow. The (former/formal)
is expensive, the (later/latter) is cheaper.
58. Mass-wasting (produces/product) (many/much) of the debris that is
(later/latter) carried away by streams (to deposit/to be deposited) on
the ocean floor.
59. Besides mountain-making processes there are (other/another) seismic
(phenomenon/phenomena) which are not directly (connected/connecting)
with mountain-making processes.
60. Some shocks (not spread/never spread) over large areas.

Test translation (Russian -> English)

1. Не бывает геологических катастроф без участия человеческого фактора.
2. Чтобы предсказать геологические катаклизмы геологи проводят тщательные
исследования.
3. Геологические катастрофы возникают из неправильного использования
окружающей среды человеком.
4. Геологические катастрофы - это те геологические события, которые
приводят к человеческим и материальным потерям.
5. Некоторые геологические процессы продолжались на протяжении многих
миллионов лет.
6. На всем протяжении геологической истории существует множество примеров
геологических катастроф.
7. Существует два типа геологических катастроф: возникающие естественным
путем и спровоцированные человеческой деятельностью.
8. Опускание суши может быть вызвано откачкой грунтовых вод из-под
поверхности земли.
9. За последнее время число геологических катаклизмов увеличилось.
10. Все катастрофы представляют собой обычные геологических процессы до
тех пор, пока на их пути не возникает человек.
11. После того, как проблема четко определена, существует ряд подходов к
ее решению.
12. Существует много подходов к решению проблемы геологических катастроф;
одним решением является изменение местоположения объектов
строительства, другие решения связаны с уменьшением последствий
катаклизмов.
13. Землетрясения - это одно из наиболее опасных явлений, встречающихся в
природе.
14. Целый город может быть разрушен в течение нескольких минут в
результате сильного землетрясения.
15. Существуют молодые горы, которые все еще не прекратили своего
существования.
16. Существуют сейсмические явления, которые косвенно связаны с процессом
горообразования.
17. Некоторые типы землетрясений происходят главным образом в регионах,
где широко распространены легкорастворимые породы.
18. На протяжении миллионов лет горные породы растрескивались и
разрушались под действием погодных факторов.
19. На протяжении веков воды морей покрывали ту часть земли, которая в
настоящее время представляет собой сушу.
20. Растения и животные населяли землю на протяжении миллионов лет.
21. Невозможно предсказать, когда сойдет оползень.
22. Помимо упомянутых выше землетрясений существуют другие, известные как
тектонические землетрясения.
23. Измерить механические свойства образцов непросто.
24. Проблема предсказания схода горных лавин относится, скорее, к сфере
искусства, нежели точных наук.
25. В настоящее время имеется в наличии ряд методик для контроля за
снежными лавинами.
26. Помимо горообразующих процессов, существуют другие сейсмические
явления, которые не связаны непосредственно с горообразованием.
27. Природные катастрофы чрезвычайно разнообразны.
28. Какие процессы вызывают природные катаклизмы?
29. Существует природная связь между катастрофами: одна катастрофа влияет
на другую, причем первая является спусковым механизмом для
последующей.
30. Землетрясения не располагаются по поверхности земли равномерно,
напротив они сосредоточены в отдельных узких зонах.


Test translation (English -> Russian), 100 п/зн/30 мин.

Subsidence

Principles causes of land-surface subsidence are removal of solids or
fluids from beneath the land surface, either naturally or artificially:
solution, oxidation, compaction of soil or sediments under surface loading,
vibration and tectonic movement.
The two types of fluid withdrawal by man that have caused noticeable
subsidence under favorable geologic conditions are (1) the withdrawal of
oil, gas, and associated water and (2) the withdrawal with ground water.
The withdrawal of steam for geothermal power has caused subsidence; also,
the withdrawal of brines, reportedly, has caused subsidence.
Regardless of the nature of the fluid removed, the principles involved
are the same; therefore, the separation of subsidence phenomena due to
fluid withdrawal into those caused by exploitation of oil and gas fields
and those caused by pumping of ground water may seem highly arbitrary. On
the other hand, there are marked differences in the character and
dimensions of the two types of reservoirs and in the magnitude of man-made
stresses involved.















































| SECTION II. |
|Amazing Earth. |
|Unit I.|The Changing Earth. |терминологическая лексика |
| | |English Tenses: значение и употребление |
| | |активных и пассивных форм английского |
| | |глагола |
| | |слова заместители (Revision) |
| | |конструкция «the former.., the latter.» |
| | |(Revision) |
|Unit |Plate tectonics and | 1. терминологическая и общенаучная |
|II. |man. |лексика |
| | |2. употребление видо-временных форм |
| | |глагола |
| | |3. оборот «Complex Subject» |
|Unit |The Deep-Earth-Gas |общенаучная терминология |
|III. |Hypothesis. |2. независимый причастный оборот |
| | |3. оборот «Complex Subject» |
| | |4. способы выражения вероятности |
|Unit | Test section |
|IV. | |
































SECTION II. Amazing Earth
Unit I. The Changing Earth.
Focus on:
1. терминологическая лексика
2. English Tenses: значение и употребление активных и пассивных форм
английского глагола
3. слова заместители (Revision)
4. конструкция «the former.., the latter.» (Revision)

Text Study.

Ex.1.
Найдите в тексте эквиваленты следующим словам и словосочетаниям.
. Лик земли
. Включать в себя глубокие и далеко идущие перемены
. На протяжении миллионов лет
. Разрушаться под воздействием выветривания
. Демонстрировать заметное непостоянство
. Движение суши вверх и вниз относительно уровня моря
. Во многих случаях
. Подвергаться влиянию чего-либо
. Насчитывать до.
. Внезапные движения
. Время от времени
. Повторяющиеся наступление и отступление моря
. Населять землю
. По сравнению с.

Ex.2.
Выпишите из текста все глаголы, которые описывают изменения лика земли.
Дайте их 3 формы.
Ex.3.
Заполните пропуски соответствующими предлогами.
1. Glaciers plow ________ mountains valleys.
2. The surface of the earth is crumbling ________ the weather.
3. Streams are sawing ________ the lands.
4. The sea is eating ________ continental masses.
5. Vast sheets of ice spread ________ the continents.
6. Molten materials were forced not only _________ the earth's crust,
but also ________ the
surface.
Ex.4.
Выберите правильный вариант.
1) The study of the problem ________ the fact that.
a) is established
b) has established
c) has been established
2) A long history of the earth ________ many profound changes
a) have involved
b) has been involved
c) has involved
3) For millions of years rocks ________ under weather
a) are crumbled
b) have been crumbling
c) was crumbling
4) During geologic time vast masses of molten material _______ out upon
the surface of
the Earth.
a) have forced
b) has been forced
c) have been forced

Ex.5.
Переведите следующие предложения, используя соответствующие временные формы
глагола «to affect»
1) Поверхность земли регулярно подвергается воздействию различных
геологических факторов.
2) Поверхность земли подвергалась воздействию различных геологических
факторов много лет назад.
3) Поверхность земли подвергалась воздействию различных геологических
факторов на протяжении многих лет.
4) Поверхность земли подвергалась и подвергается воздействию различных
геологических факторов на протяжении долгой геологической истории.
5) В настоящее время поверхность земли постоянно подвергается воздействию
различных геологических факторов.

Ex.6.
Сделайте выбор из вариантов, предложенных в скобках.
The (long/length) of time of human history is very (shot/short) as
compared to (these/that) of the geologic time. The (form/former) is
(to measure/to be measured) by thousands of years, the (later/latter) by
long history of the earth has (involved/evolved) many profound changes.

Ex.7.
Замените выделенные слова словами из текста.
1) The study of geology has proved the fact that a long history of the
earth has included
many vast changes.
2) The rocks have been crumbling under the weather constantly.
3) During the eons of the geological time, great amounts of molten
materials have, from time to time, been forced out upon the surface.
Lakes have appeared and disappeared and glaciers have gone forward
and backward.


Ex.8.
Подберите наречиям из левой колонки соответствующие толкования из правой.
Проверьте по ключу.
1. incessantly 1.
at short intervals
2. intermittently 2.
frequently
3. often
3. not all the time
4. sometimes 4.
without stopping or interruption
5. constantly 5.
now and then, at times
6. continually 6.
not stopping, continually
7. occasionally 7.
continually stopping and starting again
8. continuously 8.
again and again, repeatedly

|[pic] |1 - 6 |3 - 1 |5 - 2 |7 - 5 |
| |2 - 5 |4 - 3 |6 - 8 |8 - 4 |

Note: compare continual and continuous.
Continual usually describes an action which is repeated again and again.
Continuous indicates that the action is going on without stopping or
interruption.

Ex.9.
Заполните пропуски, выбрав подходящий вариант из предложенных ниже.
Объясните свой выбор.
1. For millions years the surface of the earth have been ________ crumbling
under the weather
a) incessantly
b) regularly
2. Various parts of the earth are being _______ affected by sudden
movements of the earth's crust.
a) continually
b) sometimes
3. During the eons of geological time vast quantities of molten materials
have _______ been forced out upon the surface.
a) continuously
b) intermittently
4. The outer shell of the earth has ________ shown marked instability
throughout geological time.
a) continually
b) continuously

Ex.10.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных в скобках.
1. Sea waters have spread over many parts of (that/what) are now
continental areas.
2. (There/where) have been repeated advances and retreats of the sea over
many districts.
3. For millions of years rocks have been crumbling under the
(whether/weather).
4. Locally glaciers have plowed (though/through) mountain valleys.

Ex. 11.
Подготовьте текст для устного чтения и перевода.

Ex.12.
Опишите процессы, которые изменяли лик Земли на протяжении геологического
времени и продолжают действовать сейчас.











Unit II. Plate tectonics and Man
Focus on:
. терминологическая и общенаучная лексика
. употребление видо-временных форм глагола
. оборот «Complex Subject»

Text Study:

Science is cumulative, and advances are made in the light of knowledge
gained painstakingly by many researchers. A survey of the development of
plate tectonics illustrates the progressive and cooperative nature of
science and the way in which research in diverse fields produces unifying
concepts of practical value to society.
The basic understanding of plate motions was considered as a conceptual
revolution as profound for the earth sciences as were earlier developments
of the concept of evolution in biology and of the concept of atomic and
molecular structure in physics and chemistry. We know the new fields as
plate tectonics: the "plate" is the basic unit of the system, and
"tectonics" (from the Greek word "tekton", meaning builder) refers to the
processes and products of motions within the Earth.
According to the theory of plate tectonics the Earth's crust is broken
into moving plates of "lithosphere". The plates tend to be internally
rigid, and their interact mostly at their edges. All plates are moving
relative to all others. Although velocities of relative motion between
adjacent plates are low by human standards, they are extremely rapid by
geologic ones. Plates are pulling apart primarily along the system of great
submarine ridges in the world's oceans. Where plates converge, one tips
down and slides beneath the other. Generally, an oceanic plate slides
("subducts") beneath a continental plate or another oceanic plate. A trench
is formed where the undersliding plate tips down, and the ocean-floor
sediments it carries is scrapped off against the front of the overriding
plate.
We now know much about the mechanics of these motions from geophysical
studies and particularly from seismic-reflection profiles made with
instruments developed for oil-field exploration.
New oceanic-plate material is generated by the upwelling processes at
spreading ridges. Old lithosphere is consumed, and recycled deep into the
mantle. The balance is global only: the formation of lithosphere at the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge is compensated by subduction primarily in the western
Pacific.
Although the integrated concepts of plate tectonics were proved primarily
by geophysical studies of the ocean basins, they have revolutionized our
understanding of continental geology. Earthquakes are the most dramatic way
in which these plate motions affect man. Most volcanic eruptions are also
produced by the plate motions. The distribution of the mineral deposits and
fossil fuels upon which our civilization depends has to a large extent been
controlled by plate motions and interactions.
The course of evolution of life on Earth has been much influenced by
plate motions too. The Earth has had contrasted areas of land and sea
throughout its geologic history, although how much of the present water was
early at the surface and how much has since been differentiated out by
volcanic processes is debatable. The initial continents of an internally
stable Earth, without the rejuvenating processes of uplift, mountain
building, formation of new continental material, and magnetism, would long
since have disappeared beneath the sea levelled by land and sea erosion,
limiting potential life forms.

Ex.1.
Дайте русские эквиваленты следующим словосочетаниям:
. cumulative and cooperative nature of science
. a survey of the developments
. to gain knowledge painstakingly
. to produce unifying concepts
. a research in diverse fields of science
. to be of practical value
. the basic understanding
. conceptual revolution
. the concept of evolution
. to be the basic unit of the system
. according to the theory of
. the most dramatic way
. to a large extent
. in the course of evolution
. to be debatable

Ex.2.
Подберите пары слов (словосочетаний) близких по значению.
|совокупность улик |to survey the situation |
|получать опыт |to take pains |
|ознакомиться с положением |cumulative evidence |
|объединять усилия |to unify efforts |
|прилагать усилия |to gain experience |
|наиболее яркий пример |to a great extent |
|в значительной степени |valuable information |
|ценные сведения |the most dramatic example |

|1 - . |3 - . |5 - . |7 - . |
|2 - . |4 - . |6 - . |8 - . |

Ex.3.
Замените выделенные слова и выражения эквивалентами из текста.
Science is gradually increasing in knowledge. Most advances are
obtained by many investigators. A review of the advances of plate tectonics
gives the picture of the joint nature of science and the way in which study
in different fields gives general concepts of practical importance to
society.

Ex.4.
Объясните по-русски значение следующих терминов:
a plate; plate tectonics; adjacent plates; plate boundary; an
underlying plate; an overriding plate; subduction of plates; obduction of
plates; collision of plates; interaction of plates; convergence of plates;
sliding of one plate beneath another one; submarine ridges; spreading
ridges; Mid-Atlantic Ridge; upwelling processes; seismic reflection
profiles.

Ex.5.
Закончите следующие определения:
1. A process in which a lithospheric plate descends beneath another plate
is called ______.
2. A relatively rigid independent segment of the lithosphere that can
move independently is termed ______.
3. A process of rising and transporting of the material from the depth to
the surface is referred to as ______.
4. A process of colliding of two lithosphere plates is ______.
5. A process of separating plates from each other is called ______.
6. A branch of geology dealing with the broad architecture of the Earth,
its major structural and deformational features is known as ______.

Ex.6.
Выберите нужную глагольную форму из предложенных ниже.
1. The integrated concepts of plate tectonics primarily ______ by
geographical studies of ocean basins.
a. proved
b. are proved
c. were proved
d. proving
2. The concept of plate tectonics ______ our understanding of continental
geology.
a. revolutionize
b. have revolutionized
c. has been revolutionized
d. has revolutionized
3. Most volcanic eruptions ______ by plate motions.
a. produces
b. are producing
c. are produced
d. have produced
4. The distribution of mineral deposits ______ by plate interaction.
a. has controlled
b. have been controlled
c. are controlled
d. controls
5. The evolution of life ______ by plate motion.
a. influences
b. influenced
c. has influenced
d. has been influenced
6. The Earth ______ contrasted areas of land and sea throughout its
geologic history.
a. has
b. had
c. has had
d. have
7. Without the rejuvenating processes of uplift the initial continents of
the Earth ______.
a. were leveled
b. are being leveled
c. would have been leveled
d. would have leveled
8. All plates ______ relative to all others.
a. moves
b. are moved
c. are moving
d. are being moved

Ex.7.
Сравните следующие предложения по их структуре и содержанию. Какие из
высказываний более близки друг другу по смыслу.
1. Science is cumulative.
2. Science is known to be cumulative.
3. It is known that science is cumulative.

1. The earth's crust is broken into moving plates of the lithosphere.
2. The earth's crust is believed to be broken into moving plates of the
lithosphere.
3. It is believed that the earth's crust is broken into moving plates of
the lithosphere.

1. A new oceanic crust is generated at spreading ridges.
2. A new oceanic crust is considered to be generated at spreading ridges.
3. It is considered that a new oceanic crust is generated at spreading
ridges.

Ex.8.
Перефразируйте следующие высказывания, смягчив их категоричность, используя
оборот «complex subject».
1. Plates are pulling apart along the submarine ridges.
2. Generally an oceanic plate subducts beneath a continental plate.
3. A trench is formed in the zone of subduction.
4. Most volcanic eruptions are produced by the plate motions.
5. The distribution of mineral deposits are controlled by plate
interaction.
6. The course of evolution of life is influenced by plate motion.

Ex.9.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных в скобках.
1. All plates are (moved/moving) (relative/relatively) to all
(other/others).
2. The velocity of (relative/relatively) motion (between/within) plates
(is/are) low by human standards but it is extremely rapid by geologic
(one/ones).
3. An ocean plate subducts (beneath/between) a continental plate or
(others/another) oceanic plate.
4. The (cause/course) of evolution on Earth has (influenced/been
influenced) by plate motion.
5. Earthquakes are (most/the most) dramatic way in which plate motions
(affect/effect) man.
6. The distribution of mineral deposits and fossil fuels (has/have) been
controlled by plate interaction.
7. The Earth (has/has had) contrasted areas of land and sea
(although/throughout) its geologic history, (although/throughout) how
(much/many) of the present water has since (differentiated/been
differentiated) out by volcanic processes (is/are) debatable.

Ex.10.
Подготовьте текст для чтения вслух и перевода

Ex.11.
Подготовьте устное сообщение/презентацию на тему «Роль плитотектоники в
общем понимании геологических проблем».









































Unit III. The Deep-Earth-Gas Hypotheses.

Focus on:
. общенаучная терминология
. независимый причастный оборот
. оборот «Complex Subject»
. способы выражения вероятности

Text Study:

There is much evidence indicating that earthquakes release gases from
deep in the earth's mantle. Such gases may indicate methane of
nonbiological origin, which could be a vast resource of fuel.
It is widely believed that the earth's supply of hydrocarbon fuels will
be largely used up in the foreseeable future, the most desirable ones (oil
and natural gas) within a few decades and coal within a few centuries.
Diverse evidence leads us to believe that enormous amounts of natural gas
lie deep in the earth and that if they can be tapped, there would be source
of hydrocarbon fuel that could last for thousands of years. The hypothesis
that there is much gas deep in the earth also provides a unified basis for
explaining a number of otherwise rather puzzling phenomena that either give
warning of earthquakes or accompany them.
The exact composition of the gas is not known, since the observational
evidence is scattered and not easily interpreted. Volcanic eruptions bring
gas out from the interior of the earth. It is not possible, however, to
deduce from such observations the initial composition of the gas while it
was still deep in the earth.
Gases released during earthquakes are probably more reliable samples of
what resides in the deep crust and the upper mantle. The sampling of such
gases is just beginning, and the data will not yet support confident
conclusions. One can assume that the composition of the deep-earth gases
varies from place to place, since the location of mineral deposits in the
crust suggests that the underlying mantle is quite heterogeneous. For a
variety of reasons we think methane of nonbiological origin is one of the
principle deep-earth gases, and it will be the focus of our discussion
here, although we do not mean to minimize the possible importance of other
deep-earth gases in the phenomena associated with earthquakes.
The notion of nonbiological methane runs counter to the prevailing view
in petroleum geology that virtually all the oil and natural gas in the
earth is of biological origin. In that view the carbon in hydrocarbon fuels
was originally derived from atmospheric carbon dioxide, and the energy to
dissociate the carbon and the oxygen came from sunlight in the course of
photosynthesis by green plants. The bural of some of these organic
compounds before they could become oxidized would then have provided the
source materials for oil and gas. It cannot be doubted that this process
contributed to the genesis of much of the petroleum that has been
recovered, but there may be more to the story.
The hypothesis that the earth contains much nonbiological hydrocarbon
begins with the observation that hydrocarbons are the dominant carbon
containing molecules in the solar system. The universe is made mostly of
hydrogen, and the evidence of cosmochemistry suggests that the earth and
the rest of the solar system originally condensed out of a hydrogen-
saturated nebula. Most of the carbon in meteorites, which provide the best
clues to the origin, composition of the inner planets, is in the form of
complex hydrocarbons with some chemical similarity to oil tars.
The picture we favour is of dual origin, with some hydrocarbons derived
from buried organic sediments and probably much larger amount added to
those hydrocarbons by augmentation from a stream of non-biological methane.

Let us now examine some of the evidence for the escape of methane from
the interior of the earth. A likely place to look is along the crustal
faults and fissures of the tectonic-plate boundaries, which ought to
provide the best access to the deep interior. Indeed, hydrocarbons appear
to be clearly associated with such plates.
Another line of evidence connecting nonbiological hydrocarbons with
such features is the striking correlation between the major oil and gas
regions and the principal zones of past and present seismic activity. Oil
fields often lie along active or ancient lines. Most of the known natural
seeps of oil and gas are found in seismically active regions. The
association suggests to us that the deep faults may provide a conduit for
the continuous input of nonbiological methane and other gases streaming up
from below. Moreover, the upward migration of methane and other gases in
fault zones may contribute to the triggering of earthqnakes.
Seismologists have long recognized a difficulty in accounting for deep
earthquakes. Yet earthquakes have been recorded from depth of as much as
700 kilometers and if the fracture is strong enough to fracture the ground
up to the surface, the gas escaping may generate some of the peculiar
phenomena that have been reported to accompany many major earthquakes. The
phenomena include flames that shoot from the ground, "earthquake lights",
fiece bubbling in bodies of water, sulphureous air and visible waves
rolling slowly along alluvial ground. Tsunamis (large, earthquake-caused
waves at the sea that are often highly destructive) may be an analogous
phenomenon. It is usually assumed that they are generated by a sudden
displacement of an enormous area of the sea floor over a vertical distance
comparable to the height of the wave.
There is as yet no proof that any of the effects we have mentioned are
caused by eruption of gas during earthquakes, but at least for the flame
and bubbling water phenomena it is difficult to imagine a likely
alternative.
Many of the precursory phenomena are detected only by instruments.
Included in this category are changes in the velocity of seismic waves
through the ground, in the electrical conductivity of the ground, in the
tilt and elevation of the surface, in the chemical composition of gases in
the soil and the ground water. The time between the onset of a precursor
and the earthquake ranges from minutes to years.
Not all precursors of earthquakes can be detected only by instruments.
Some are so obvious to the senses that they have been recognized since
ancient times. We believe these effects too are caused by an increased flow
of gas through the .ground. Among these "microscopic" precursors are dull
explosive noises of unknown origin, the strange behaviour of animals, local
increases of temperature, bubbling of water in wells and flames from the
ground.
Many other lines of investigation can elucidate the degassing processes
of the earth. Variations of the methane content of the atmosphere may be
observable. Changes of fluid pressure in the ground can be monitored. No
one has any firm evidence on the diverse gas regimes more than a few
kilometers below the surface or on the quantity or frequency of the various
gases emerge.
Our present attempt to formulate a relatively simple hypothesis to account
for numerous previously unrelated facts will doubtless turn out to be in
places oversimplified or overstated. We hope, however, that it will
stimulate further research in this fundamental field of geophysics and
geochemistry, leading perhaps to the discovery of large new sources of fuel
and in any case to an improvement in the understanding of the earth and its
resources.

Ex.1.
Опираясь на материал текста, дайте английские эквиваленты следующим
высказываниям:
I.
. Существует большое количество свидетельств, указывающих на то, что.
. Существует широко распространённое мнение о том, что.
. Разнообразные свидетельства дают основание полагать, что.
. Данная гипотеза даёт общую основу для объяснения, в противном случае,
довольно загадочных явлений.
. Те доказательства, которые можно наблюдать, представляют собой
разрозненную картину, которую непросто объяснить.
. Из такого рода наблюдений невозможно сделать выводы относительно.
. Имеющиеся данные не позволяют сделать однозначные выводы.
. Можно предположить, что.
. По ряду причин мы полагаем, что.
. В центре нашего обсуждения будет.
. Данное представление вступает в противоречие с преобладающей точкой
зрения.
. Согласно этой точке зрения.
. Не может быть сомнений в том, что.
II.
. Данные космохимии дают основание предполагать, что.
. Та картина, сторонниками которой мы являемся, имеет двойственную
природу.
. Давайте проанализируем некоторые из имеющихся свидетельств.
. Обычно предполагают, что.
. Пока ещё не существует доказательств того, что.
. Многие другие пути исследований могут пролить свет на.
. Никто не имеет каких-либо твёрдых доказательств.
. Данная попытка сформулировать относительно того, что простую гипотезу
для объяснения многочисленных, ранее несвязанных между собой фактов,
будет несомненно способствовать дальнейшим фундаментальным
исследованиям.

Ex. 2.
Дайте русские эквиваленты следующим словам и словосочетаниям.
. to release gases from deep in the earth's mantle
. gases of nonbiological origin
. a vast resource of fuel
. the earth's supply of hydrocarbon fuel
. to be used up in foreseeable future
. within a few decades
. to tap enormous amounts of gas
. to give warning of earthquakes
. to bring gas out of the interior of the earth
. the initial composition of gas
. to be reliable samples
. to vary from place to place
. to be hetero (homo) geneous
. to be derived from
. in the course of photosynthesis
. to provide the source materials
. the rest of the solar system
. to provide the best clues to the origin of the planets
. buried organic sediments
. the escape of gases from the interior of the earth
. a likely place to look.

Ex.3.
Дайте определения следующим понятиям, объединив их части.

|augmentation |information that gives a reason for believing |
|evidence |set an action or a process in motion |
|trigger |thing that comes before something |
|precursur |thing that is added to something |

Ex.4.
Определите значение "mean(s)" в следующих высказываниях:
1) What do you mean?
2) He is a mean person.
3) What is the mean temperature of these gases?
4) What means of communication are available in this region?
5) We do not mean to minimize the possible importance of this factor.

Ex.5.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных.
1) The ______ zones of past and present seismic activity.
a. principal
b. principle
2) The tree ______ laws of geology.
a. principal
b. principle
3) There is no proof for this phenomenon, but ______ the bubbling of
water is observable.
a. at last
b. at least

Ex.6.
Объедините информацию следующих предложений в одно целое, используйте
конструкцию «независимый причастный оборот».
1. The picture which we favour is of dual origin.
2. Some hydrocarbons are derived from organic sediments which have been
buried.
3. Much larger amount of hydrocarbons were added by augmentation of non-
biological methane.

Ex.7.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных:
1) A likely place to look is along crustal faults.
a. похожее место
b. вероятное подходящее место
2) It is difficult to imagine a likely alternative.
a. подходящая альтернатива
b. другая альтернатива
3) Some peculiar phenomena are likely to accompany many earthquakes.
a. вероятно
b. маловероятно
4) Methane is unlikely to be the only deep-earth gas.
a. вероятно
b. маловероятно
5) Methane like some other deep-earth gases is associated with
earthquakes.
a. подобно
b. в отличие от

Ex.8.
Подберите пары близких по смыслу предложений (R<->E).

|Метан является одним из основных |Methane was reported to be one of |
|глубинных газов. |the principle deep-earth gases. |
|Полагают, что метан является одним |Methane seems to be one of the |
|из основных глубинных газов. |principle deep-earth gases. |
|Сообщалось, что метан является одним|Methane is one of the principle |
|из основных глубинных газов. |deep-earth gases. |
|Думали, что метан является одним из |Methane proved to be one of the |
|основных глубинных газов. |principle deep-earth gases. |
|По-видимому, метан является одним из|Methane is considered to be one of |
|основных глубинных газов. |the principle deep-earth gases. |
|Оказалось, что метан является одним |Methane was thought to have been one|
|из основных глубинных газов. |of the principle deep-earth gases. |

|1 - . |3 - . |5 - . |
|2 - . |4 - . |6 - . |

Ex.9.
Какой из предложенных вариантов наиболее точно соответствует смыслу
следующего высказывания:
The enormous amounts of gas were reported to lie in the earth.
a) Громадные запасы газа находятся под землей.
b) Сообщается, что громадные запасы газа находились под землей.
c) Сообщалось, что громадные запасы газа находятся под землей.

Ex.10.
Дайте русский перевод следующих предложений.
1. The peculiar phenomena accompany many earthquakes.
1. The peculiar phenomena are reported to accompany many earthquakes.
2. The peculiar phenomena are reported to have accompanied many
earthquakes.
3. The peculiar phenomena were reported to accompany many earthquakes.
4. The peculiar phenomena were reported to have accompanied many
earthquakes.
5. The peculiar phenomena seem to accompany many earthquakes.
6. The peculiar phenomena appear to accompany many earthquakes.

Ex.11.
Какой вариант наиболее точно соответствует содержанию высказывания в
рамках.
I
Предполагали, что состав глубинных газов меняется от места к месту.
1. One can assume that the composition of the deep-earth gases varies
from place to place.
2. It is assumed that the composition of the deep-earth gases varies from
place to place.
3. The composition of the deep-earth gases was assumed to vary from place
to place.
II
The tectonic-plate boundaries ought to provide the best access to the deep
interior.
a) The tectonic-plate boundaries are thought to provide the best access
to the deep interior.
b) The tectonic-plate boundaries appear to provide the best access to the
deep interior.
c) The tectonic-plate boundaries have to provide the best access to the
deep interior.
III
Hydrocarbons appear to be clearly associated with tectonic plates
boundaries.
1) Оказалось, что гидрокарбонаты четко ассоциируются с границами
тектонических плит.
2) По-видимому, гидрокарбонаты четко ассоциируются с границами
тектонических плит.
3) Гидрокарбонаты появляются на границах тектонических плит.
IV
The picture we favour is of dual origin, with some hydrocarbons derived
from organic sediments and other derived from a stream of non-biological
methane.
1) Картина, которой мы придерживаемся, имеет двойственную природу с
некоторыми гидрокарбонатами...
2) Картина, которой мы придерживаемся, имеет двойственную природу, причем
некоторые гидрокарбонаты...

Ex.12.
Выберите правильный вариант из предложенных в скобках.
1) Methane is one of the (principle/principal) deep-earth gases.
2) Oxygen came from sunlight in the (course/cause) of photosynthesis by
green plants.
3) Some (peculiar/particular) phenomena accompany many (mayor/major)
earthquakes.
4) A (like/likely) place for an earthquake to occur is along crustal
faults.
5) (Most/The most) of the carbon in meteorites composition of the inner
planets is in the form of (complex/compound) hydrocarbons.
6) There is no (proof/prove) that any of the effects we have mentioned
(caused/are caused) by eruption of gas during earthquakes, but (at
last/at least) for the bubbling water phenomena it is an obvious fact.
7) It will stimulate (farther/further) research in this field of geology
and in the understanding of the earth and (it's/its) resources.

Ex.13.
Закончите предложение, выбрав правильное, на Ваш взгляд, объяснение.
Найдите подтверждение в тексте.
The exact composition of the deep-earth gases is not known because:
. it varies from place to place
. gases are not accessible for direct observation
. there are difficulties in interpretation
. the gas is contaminated while rising to the surface
. the underlying mantle is heterogeneous

Ex.14.
Подготовьте устное сообщение/презентацию на тему "Теории происхождения
нефти и газа", продолжив и расширив следующую информацию:
The origin of oil and gas is one of the most important and difficult
problems of petroleum geology.
It is a particularly difficult one because it has not yet been
possible to determine the exact source bed from which any particular
petroleum originated. It was recognized many years ago that any complete
solution of the problem would require the active cooperation of several
groups of scientists.
Geologists have been concerned primarily in a study of the
environment, conditions of sedimentation, and the organic content of
petroleum source beds.
Biologists have made studies of the action of bacteria on organic
compounds and organic materials.
Chemists have isolated some of the optically active constituents of
both plants and crude oils, and have shown certain chemical and physical
similarities between them.
As further research work and investigations on this problem are
completed enough data may be assembled to enable scientists to solve the
problem of the origin of petroleum.
Many theories on the origin of petroleum have been proposed. They may
be divided into two groups: the organic and the inorganic.











Unit IV. Test section.
Посмотрите текст (5 мин) и скажите, о чем идет речь.
Переведите текст письменно (~2000зн./45 мин)

Text
I

Oceans Subduct and Continents Rift

Why Pangaea formed and subsequently dispersed is not known with
certainly. It has been suggested that these events were due to changes in
the circulation pattern within Earth's mantle. At the time of Pangaea, 300
million years ago, three-quarters of the globe was covered by a vast ocean.
If massive subduction of oceanic plates brought Pangaea together - as India
has recently been brought together with Asia - then mid-ocean ridges must
have been a dominant feature on the floor of the ocean at that time. As the
continents locked into place, the buoyancy of the continental lithospheres
resisted subduction, and the process ceased at those points. New subduction
zones formed in the oldest oceanic lithosphere; subsequently, subduction in
the ocean became an important plate force, which, along with plumes, began
the job of tearing the supercontinent apart.
When a plate is pulled by oceanic lithosphere sinking into a
subduction zone, it will be stressed and may break, or rift, along the
weakest part of the plate. If continental lithosphere forms part of the
plate, the rift will form there because it is weakest.
From the reconstruction of the plates of Pangaea, scientists have
concluded that most oceanic rifts actually started as continental rifts. We
can think of this behavior as "oceans subduct, continents rift." Oceanic
rifts provide a line of weakness about which new ocean floor forms, but
their origins can ultimately be traced back to the splitting of a
continent. Once formed and cooled, a new oceanic plate tends not to rift
but to sink back into Earth at subduction zones. Oceanic rifts propagate
into new areas of oceanic lithosphere, and the ridge system is an ever-
changing pattern, but older ocean floor appears to resist rifting. Evidence
from rock record of the continents indicates that ancient rifting and
continental collisions have taken place for at least the past 1000 million
years, and possibly longer.
(~1800зн.)

Text II
Submarine Topography
According to the hydrothesic of continental drift there have always been
continents and oceans, but patterns of distribution have varied through
time. Such changes have been accomplished by the drift of continents
through oceans much in the way icebergs drift through seawater. The block
composing the sea floor is assumed to be relatively weak with respect to
the more rigid blocks constituting the continents.
However, the existence of submarine mountain ranges seem to conflict with
the assumption that the crust of the earth beneath the ocean is weak right
up to the surface.
Regardless of how weak the ocean crust is presumed to be, the existence of
topographic forms in the oceans suggests that there is an oceanic layer of
some thickness which has been deformed to produce the observed submarine
topography.
(~900зн.)

Text III
The origin of the oceans
The obvious things are often the most remarkable; one of them is the
constancy of the total volume of water through the ages.
The mechanism of this equilibrium is unknown; it might have been expected
that water would be expected gradually from the interior of the earth and
that the seas would grow steadily larger, or that water would be
dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen in the upper atmosphere and that the
hydrogen would escape, leading to a gradual drying up of the seas. These
things either do not happen or they balance each other.
Al the speculations about the early history of the earth are open to many
doubts. The evidence is almost nonexistent, and all one can say is, «it
might have been that.».
(~800зн.)

Text IV.
Petroleum and natural oil
Most petroleum and natural gas have been derived from organic
remains deposited in a marine sedimentary environments a modern example of
the conditions is believed to have been most favourable is the Black Sea,
where there is little circulation of water, and where bottom sediments have
been found to contain as much as 35 percent of organic matter, in contrast
with the 25 percent which is normal for marine sediments.
Petroleum and natural gas are believed to develop from these organic
materials through a series of transformation not unlike those by which coal
develops from peat.
The most important source beds are generally believed to be marine
shales.
The present location of accumulation of petroleum and natural gas
obviously depends on the laws that govern their migration. Unfortunately,
these laws are not known, although a number of empirical relationships have
been established.
A simple gravitational theory seems to explain many known
occurrences. According to this theory, if oil, gas and water are present in
a reservoir bed, the oil and gas, which are lighter than water, will rise
to the highest point, with the gas being on top of the oil.
(~1200зн.)

Text V.
Origins of oil and
gas.
Off all the fossil fuels, oil is the one that tends to make the headlines.
It has become so important to the global economy that wars have been fought
over it. Oil and natural gas have the same origin, and are often found in
association. Moreover they are both hydrocarbons, so we will consider them
together.
The raw material for hydrocarbons is dead organic matter, chiefly the
remains of microorganisms and land plants. For enough of this material to
collect, it is necessary to have an environment where there is a large
supply of dead organic matter coupled with a lack of oxygen to stop it
decaying to water and carbon dioxide These conditions are met in those
areas of the sea floor where the surface waters have a high rate of
production (and mortality) of planktonic plants, which upon death sink to
the bottom to be buried in fine-grained, shaley, sediment. More rarely, the
floors of lakes provide a suitable environment.
Once an organic-rich shale has accumulated, it is a potential source rock
for hydrocarbons. For this potential to be realized, burial must occur to
allow heat, pressure and chemical conditions to cause diagenetic changes in
the organic matter. The conversion from dead organic matter to a
hydrocarbon is described as maturation.
(~1200зн.)

Text VI.
Mass extinctions and adaptive
radiation.
Why did the dinosaurs become extinct at the end of the Cretaceous, after
having been so successful for so long? This is a question that has taxed
geologist for many years. Various explanations have been proposed,
including climate change, volcanic eruptions, and mutations caused by
cosmic rays. Probably several factors were at play, and the dinosaurs
appear to have been in decline for at least a few hundred thousand years
before the knockout blow was delivered by the impact of the large
meteorite. The probable impact site is the 180-km-diameter Chicxulub crater
off the Yucatan coast of Mexico, which was discovered by geophysical
techniques in the 1980s.
Such an impact would have injected a vast amount of dust into the
atmosphere. Supplemented by smoke from widespread burning, this would have
reduced the sunlight reaching the surface to such an extent that
photosynthesis became impossible. Plants would have died, and the whole
food web depending on them would have fallen apart. Recovery of the
vegetation on land and marine planktonic plants would have begun within a
few years (from seeds and spores), but many groups of animals and some
plants became extinct. The effects were much wider than merely the demise
of the dinosaurs. Many important marine groups vanished. Notably the
ammonoids, reef-building mollusks called rudists, and the large marine
reptiles. Most species of marine planktonic animals of the kind known as
foraminiferans disappeared too, although the group as a whole recovered.
Because it was global in extent, and has effects that can be seen among
organisms living in virtually all environments, this end-Cretaceous episode
is described as a «mass extinction». The fossil record shows several mass
extinctions during the Cambrian Period, and a more dramatic one at the
close of the Ordovician Period. Because there was no life on land yet,
these mass extinctions are purely marine. However, a mass extinction at the
end of the Permian Period (and thereby marking the end of the Palaeozoic
Era) wiped out whole groups of land and marine animals, and seems to have
been an even more severe event than the end-Cretaceous mass extinction.
The causes of these earlier mass extinction are uncertain. Statistically it
is unlikely that the end-Cretaceous meteorite impact was the only one of
that size to have happened in the Phanerozoic, so it is likely that some of
the earlier mass extinctions were triggered in the same way.
What is certain is that after each mass extinction, those varieties or
organisms that had survived were able to take advantage of the demise of
their competitors to adapt, through evolutionary change, to new lifestyles.
This is described as adaptive radiation.
The sudden blossoming of the mammals at the start of the Cenozoic Era is a
good example. The disappearance of the dinosaurs meant that on land there
were no longer any large herbivores or predators. The sudden lack of
competition made it possible for the tiny mammals to diversify, and within
a few thousand generations some groups that had moved into new environments
were well on the way to evolving into different species better suite to
take advantage of the new opportunities. A classic case of the meek
inheriting the Earth, if ever there was one!
(~3000зн.)