Äîêóìåíò âçÿò èç êýøà ïîèñêîâîé ìàøèíû. Àäðåñ îðèãèíàëüíîãî äîêóìåíòà : http://www.stecf.org/conferences/adass/adassVII/reprints/christianc.ps.gz Äàòà èçìåíåíèÿ: Mon Jun 12 18:51:44 2006 Äàòà èíäåêñèðîâàíèÿ: Tue Oct 2 04:12:34 2012 Êîäèðîâêà: Ïîèñêîâûå ñëîâà: viking 2

Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems VII
ASP Conference Series, Vol. 145, 1998
R. Albrecht, R. N. Hook and H. A. Bushouse, eds.
Cyber Hype or Educational Technology?
What is being learned from all those BITS?
C.A. Christian 1
O#ce of Public Outreach Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore,
MD 21209, Email: carolc@stsci.edu
Abstract. This paper discusses various information technology methods
being applied to science education and public information. Of interest to
the O#ce of Public Outreach at STScI and our collaborators is to inves­
tigate the various techniques through which science data can be mediated
to the non­specialist client/user. In addition, attention is drawn to in­
teractive and/or multimedia tools being used in astrophysics that may
be useful, with modification, for educational purposes. In some cases,
straightforward design decisions early on can improve the wide applica­
bility of the interactive tool.
1. Introduction: What is the Big Picture?
As recipients of federal funding, the interest and pressure has increased on U.S.
agencies to provide to taxpayers some direct benefit from their investment in
our research and technological developments. Clearly, part of this e#ort was
intended for direction towards the improvement of science, mathematics and
technical education. The increase in attention by the public in examining the
benefits of research has resulted in some redirection of funding to produce qual­
ity educational materials and public repositories of information, but also o#ers
the research community an opportunity not only to share scientific results with
the public and to encourage them to continue their investment (funding), but
also to give them a vested interest in our scientific enterprises.
Through appropriate conduits, scientific and technical data can be mediated
in such a way so as to be useful to a wide audience. One such channel, cited in
this paper, is the O#ce of Public Outreach (OPO) at Space Telescope Science
Institute (STScI), which translates scientific results to the public through a
variety of mechanisms: 1) news releases, 2) science and technical background
information, 3) online curriculum support materials and 4) a variety of ancillary
products. This paper addresses instructional technology used in astrophysics­
related public programs and will explore issues related to the clientele, resource
design and budgetary issues.
1 Director, O#ce of Public Outreach, STScI
231

232 Christian
2. The Audience
It has been said that the largest global information enterprise is Education. This
idea is worrisome considering the apparent poor public understanding of science,
but it does o#er a context for the development of at least educational resources
(curriculum support) and therefore it is worth taking some time to understand
the relevant user clientele.
2.1. The Classical Approach to Formal Education
Those who have adopted the Classical Approach to formal education often adhere
to the following principles:
. Student development occurs as a result of the injection of content via the
educational system
. The teacher is the sole subject matter expert
. Evaluation of the success of the classical method has been demonstrated
through rigorous content testing via recall or rote exercises
. The classical approach is further proven through learning of the ``classics''
­ that is, logic, mathematics, and Latin
Therefore, in the classical approach, ``instructional technology'' (IT)is seen
as a threat because it can only replace teachers -- clearly an undesirable and
philosophically distasteful result. In this view, computers, obviously inferior to
human educators, have no place in the classroom. Sometimes, IT is grudgingly
accepted if proponents can convince the classicists that: 1) information access
is the only problem needed to be addressed with IT, 2) textbooks fill specific
educational needs, so the ``books on line'' represent the IT su#cient to serve
education, 3) IT can provide quick reference material for teacher/expert and
4) the only IT development required is hyptertext linkage, good content and a
decent index.
2.2. Other Approaches
Fortunately other views are held also:
1. Individualistic ­ education focus is on realizing the potential of each indi­
vidual by providing development of skills, abilities and interest
2. Social ­ education is intended to create a literate workforce. This is a re­
formist approach based on raising student awareness concerning technical,
ethical and legal issues.
3. Process ­ education develops the individual's ability to think
Happily, each of these approaches can rationalize or even embrace the use
of IT.

Cyber Hype or Educational Technology? 233
3. Specifications for Resources
3.1. Framework
Accepting the above, a framework for creating resources based on science and
technical information can be adopted, containing several components.
. Information, data and algorithms are bricks in the structure of all resources
. Interactivity is needed to engage the user and to make available specific
tools and environments
. Presentation and design of information about a discipline are important,
especially for the non­expert
. NASA missions such as HST must consider the broad audience, eg., na­
tional/international distribution and use
. Resources must be modular and easily used separately by users and other
developers
. Resources must be adaptable to educational contexts and support rather
than replace substantive activities. That is, the resources o#ered are cur­
riculum supplements, not surrogates.
. Resources must be tested in di#erent situations with a variety of demo­
graphics
3.2. Science Applications
Where should the research community start? For example, consider astronomi­
cal ``information bases'' which are characterized by the following:
. On­line living archives
. ``Standard'' formats ­ astronomy has a real advantage in the early adop­
tion of standard data exchange formats which can be readily converted
(certainly with some loss of information) to popular formats
. Globally distributed infrastructure ­ the astronomical community adopted,
at least philosophically that data is geographically distributed and should
be globally accessible
. Search engines, location services, security mechanisms and conversion ser­
vices ­ critical items for robust data location and access
. Client­server and peer­to­peer technology
These attributes in data systems are laudable. They also are critical but not
su#cient characteristics for developing public interfaces based on scientific in­
formation repositories. Therefore the further implications for developing access
methods for existing and future scientific data systems should be considered.

234 Christian
First, the data must be mediated to a palatable form for the target clientele.
For example, simply providing a conversion of ``FITS'' to ``GIF'' as a front end
to an archive is insu#cient. While access to digital libraries is crucial, it is not a
su#cient condition for satisfying the requirements of a broad audience because
every piece of precious data, each enchanting bit of research and clever algorithm
is not inherently educational or of public interest or utility.
Furthermore, developers are wise to make judicious use of multimedia and
use new technologies when and if they are appropriate and useful in context.
Specifically just because a technology is cool does not mean it is appropriate.
The balance of data, algorithms, technology and information must be integrated
wisely to be useful.
3.3. Interactivity
Many terms in the field of instructional technology (including the term ``instruc­
tional'' or ``educational technology'') vary widely with the context and particular
community which use those terms. The word interactive is no exception. The
types of interactivity referenced here include:
­ Computer mediated communications
­ Real time or near real time
­ Collaborative learning
­ Distributed learning
­ Multimedia systems
­ Simulations, modeling and games
­ Intelligent agents
­ Adaptive tutoring systems
­ Virtual reality based learning
In this paper, systems are characterized as interactive if they provide feed­
back which depends upon user input. That is, the result of the interaction is
not deterministic, or if it is digital or parametric, it involves a significantly large
number of possible responses.
4. Interface Design
The design of the interface pertaining to the visual presentation of informa­
tion is often the component that is taken least seriously in scientific information
systems. However on the Web, the use of an engaging presentation is a time hon­
ored tactic to grab attention and increase transient clientele. It also is e#ective
for retaining users if the services o#ered are innovative, unique, and implement
imaginative processes built on interactive tools. Further, the public interfaces
into scientific and technical resources should relate to the user. Part of the pre­
sentation should give users a context and a specific connection to not only the
content but also to the individuals involved in the research or technology being
made available. For example, profiles and interviews (audio, video, real­time)
with observatory scientists and engineers are useful: Who are they? Why do
these individuals pursue scientific research and what technical challenges related
to telescopes, instrumentation and methods are encountered?

Cyber Hype or Educational Technology? 235
Figure 1. The user (eg., students) provide test velocities to the as­
tronaut for hitting a golf ball while standing on the surface of a planet,
asteroid or comet in the Amazing Space module on gravity and escape
velocity. If the astronaut hits the golf ball with a su#cient stroke, the
golf ball, naturally, is launched into orbit.
Interfaces should provide some user control over selection of resources, data,
and information rather than appearing to be restrictive and proscribed. The
presentation, though engaging and clever, should not interfere with or obscure
the usability or relevance of the resources. These principles are not trivial to
implement and are far more important for users who are not experts in the
subject matter being presented. Such users do not generally ``need'' access to
the resources, and therefore interface design is critical for retaining clientele and
reducing their frustration at finding relevant information in a consistent way.
``Web hits'' on the graphically engaging ``top page'' are a far cry from exhibiting
actual user interest in a suite of resources.
4.1. Further Design Considerations
Once the user is ``committed'' to delving deeper into the resource structure, the
underlying content must continue to be marketed well. The use of each resource
encountered must be clear, and structures which are tiered in complexity and
interactivity are recommended. Designers must plan for high bandwidth, but
create low bandwidth options. Clearly browse products must be included so that
users can identify precisely that the data and information is what is expected.
Scientific developers should recognize that raw data online is NOT interesting
or useful to the non expert user. Science data must be made relevant within the
context of the resource and for the target audience.

236 Christian
Figure 2. The robot is a mascot who guides interactive modules for
understanding the basics of various kinds of waves in the Amazing
Space resource: ``Light and Color''. The robot actively performs vari­
ous activities ( generating waves and measuring temperature, etc.). In
this graphic, the robot uses a prism to disperse sunlight. The switch
at the robot's left opens the window shade
5. Content Creation Best Practices
As discussed previously, the public audience often does not perceive a ``need''
for the science and technical content that the research community can provide.
The user base is drawn from a population of varied demographics, that is, wildly
heterogeneous in expertise, motivation, interest, and sensitivity. Scientific and
technical fields are highly competitive, and are drawn from a population which
is often introspective. These two communities often have divergent approaches,
concepts and motivations (and sometimes actual mistrust) which should be ad­
dressed in building public interfaces to scientific content.
At the O#ce of Public Outreach / STScI we find that direct involvement
of the user in the design of services is critical. This philosophy is espoused in
other venues, including industry, but it is often actually just ``lip service''. Our
programs in OPO insist that representative users are not just temporary critics
of resources, but rather, collaborators and co­authors. In this way, compromise
and balance are achieved which suit users from varied backgrounds. The col­
laborative teams we create include representative users (eg., teachers, science
museum personnel, journalists -- depending upon context), scientists, engineers,
programmers, graphic artists and animators.
Note that often, knowledge of this team, face­to­face approach frequently
tempts the software engineer or scientist (``who knows better'' and who would
prefer to lecture on content rather than collaborate on resource creation) to
disengage from the process before it starts! Managing collaborative projects
aimed at producing useful public access to scientific research is a challenging
proposition and must include talented brokers to engage and mesh the expertise
of the various participants productively.
It should be noted that an initial period of building of intra­ team trust and
rapport is essential. Careful consideration of design issues is worth the e#ort,
otherwise expensive multi­media resources may be only of fleeting interest to

Cyber Hype or Educational Technology? 237
the intended users no matter how compelling or astonishing the technology to
be used appears to be.
5.1. Evaluation
Evaluation of publicly accessible resources is a key issue for determining e#ec­
tiveness, for reviewing level of e#ort to be devoted to resource creation, and
for planning new development. At STScI/OPO, we test resources in a variety
of environments with users both local to our area, but also across the United
States. Some resources are piloted internationally. Key topics addressed in the
evaluation of specifically curriculum online materials are:
. Product concept
. Overall design, and design of specific modules or objects in the resource
. Usability by target clientele and other users, and relevance to users re­
quirements and unforeseen needs
. Pedagogical approach for curriculum resources
. Customer feedback ­ acquired through in situ testing at workshops, semi­
nars, and classrooms, and further through a network of remote testers
. Ancillary usage: modules used in new ways in varying environments and
as integrated into new products
Note that educational hard copy products are evaluated similarly. The
specific evaluation procedures and results of resources are the subject of separate
papers.
5.2. Copyrights
Copyrights are a growing, serious problem and are a concern at many levels.
A full discussion of the issues is well beyond the scope of this paper. Clearly
educational resources must obtain copyright permissions for material reproduced
from external sources and this procedure is not trivial. Conversely, resource
authors must consider carefully what copyright permissions will be allowed. At
STScI/OPO the copyright policy 2 is derived from the NASA policy and basically
gives reasonably liberal permissions to research and educational users for content
re­use.
6. Budget Model ­ Can you a#ord it?
The creation of meaningful and useful resources based on scientific research data
and results is non­trivial and demands consideration of many issues including
budget. The typical costs to be considered include:
2 http://www.stsci.edu/web/Copyright.html

238 Christian
-- Overall development time including pre­planning
-- Longevity of products and resources
-- Cost of maintaining currency including ease of upgrade
-- Overall maintenance and other overheads
-- Marketing costs (even the design of an enticing frontispiece may be at­
tributed to ``marketing'' costs)
6.1. Cost E#ective Strategies
The cost e#ective strategies that have been tried and true in resource develop­
ment are to create usable and easily upgradable modules. The modularity also
should encourage re­use by both the original authors and by new users who add
value to each item. In addition, avoidance of duplication where possible, resist­
ing the temptation to reinvent resources with small modifications that may be
transparent or even useless to the user. Well designed resources separate the in­
terface layer from the underlying content, code and objects and include rational
handles to encourage re­use through changeable interfaces.
6.2. What is NASA Doing?: The Leverage Power Model
The NASA community has considered seriously attempting to understand how
resources are created and disseminated, and has taken a look at the ``leverage
power'' of projects and programs. This model is used widely in commercial
ventures particularly for cost e#ective sales and marketing.
Consider that for a single module or activity A is created. That activity,
if created e#ciently, optimally and with high quality (an exercise left to the
reader) has a particular leverage power depending upon how it is mediated to
the audience. For example, if the activity can be replicated and further amplified
through one­to­many dissemination methods and then made available to a wider
audience through connections and networking, the item can be characterized
with a leverage power:
Leverage Power = L = ### (1)
# = replication including re­use and duplication
# = connections/networking through cross links
# = amplification, that is, one­to­many
(e.g.., content source # master # teacher) # student
For example, a classroom activity presented in a workshop to 30 regional
science curriculum supervisors who in turn transmit the information to 30 local
science teachers and these teachers in turn share the information with other ( 2)
science teachers, then the leverage power is 1800. If the workshop is replicated
in 10 regions, the leverage is 18,000 for the one example module. Clearly the
``leverage power per student'' is multiplied by the number of students in a class
(conservatively, 25).
# = 30, # = 2, # = 30 â 10
LeveragePower = 18, 000

Cyber Hype or Educational Technology? 239
However if the same ``activity'' is presented by an outsider, visiting one
classroom of 25 students, then the leverage is 1 x 25 rather than 18,000 x 25.
Therefore, the leverage power of ``scientists in the classroom'' is low, particularly
if the teacher in the classroom is unable to replicate the activity presented by
the scientist or engineer in the future.
6.3. Brokers
It is clear that a variety of networking, replication, re­use and amplification
techniques are possible. Through the use of organized mediators and brokers,
the leverage power of educational resources made available from astrophysical
sources can be impressively large. Within the NASA O#ce of Space Science,
a system of ``Education Forum'' and ``Brokers'' have been created to serve the
networking, replication, and dissemination roles, # and # above. Each Forum
provides handshakes between the public and the science community through a
variety of means, including electronic multimedia. Brokers provide dissemination
networks, spreading the word and demonstrating use of Space Science content
(hosted and linked) through the Forum. This system is intended to provide
e#ective methods that allow public access to scientific data, technology and
expertise in a useful way which does not disable the research enterprise.
6.4. Launching a Project
STScI/OPO is the site of the NASA OSS ``Origins Education Form'', and thereby
has the mandate to help researchers find ways to craft e#ective educational pro­
grams through pragmatic approaches. The Forum provides models for e#ective,
tested processes and advice on best practices. There are also mechanisms for
obtaining funding and links to existing successful programs as examples.
7. Summary
Information technology methods are being applied and evolved to provide exem­
plary materials for science education, curricula and general public information
about research and technology. A variety of successful techniques are emerging
and interactive resources are now being o#ered and tested to allow users with an
interest in science to experience scientific principles and research environments.
It is clear that the algorithms, archives and data representations in use within
astrophysics are necessary building blocks, but must be mediated and culled to
address the needs of the user. Design considerations and presentation must be
weighed carefully when planning the budget and necessary human resources to
be devoted to the public interface.
References
Recker, M., 1997, Educ. Technol. Rev., 7, 9
Reeves, J., 1997, Educ. Technol. Rev., 7, 5