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Дата изменения: Thu Apr 16 18:08:59 2009 Дата индексирования: Tue Oct 2 08:04:39 2012 Кодировка: Windows-1251 |
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" Russian missions to the Moon,
Venus, and Mars in the 1960s ". Vladimir A. Krasnopolsky (Department of Physics, Catholic
University of America) Abstract: Flights to the Moon,
Venus, and Mars were a natural continuation of the Russian space program
after the success of the first orbiters (Sputniks) in 1957-58. Sixteen
spacecraft were sent to the Moon in 1959-1970 in the Insufficient
reliability of the forth rocket stage (which drove a spacecraft to
interplanetary orbit from the orbit around Earth) and some spacecraft
subsystems badly affected the Russian flights to Venus and Mars in the early
1960s. The first spacecraft Venera was launched to Venus in 1961 and lost
halfway to the target. The 2MV program presumed a landing probe to Venus and
flyby of Mars with launch in 1962. The Mars 1 probe was lost halfway to Mars.
The 3MV program involved a landing probe to Venus and flybys of Venus and
Mars using similar spacecraft with launch in 1964-1965. The spacecraft for Mars
was not ready by the launch time in 1964 and was sent to the Moon as Zond 3
in 1965. Veneras 2 and 3 were launched in 1965 and lost near Venus. All later
Russian missions to Venus were successful. Venera 4 (1967) was the first soft
entry probe that made observations down to 22 km and flyby of Venus. Veneras
5 and 6 (1969) were alive down to 17 km, and Venera 7 (1970) made the first
soft landing on Venus. Scientific return of the early Venera missions
included studies of the interplanetary space at the cruise phase and the
first direct measurements of pressure, density, and temperature profiles in
the atmosphere and its chemical composition. Atomic O and H were detected and
observed in the Venus' upper atmosphere as well. The Mars 1969 mission
involved a new large spacecraft and a new powerful booster. However, the
mission crashed at the launch phase. The author was
technically responsible for the surface phase state and gamma-ray detector at
the Venus lander of 2MV, the photometer at the Venus lander of 3MV (Venera
3), electronics of the IR radiometer at Luna 13 (1966), and the ultraviolet
spectrometer at the Venera 2, Zond 3, and Mars 1969 missions. This UV
spectrometer was also used at the Cosmos 65 and Cosmos 121 orbiters in 1965
and 1966 and returned the first study of the global ozone distribution. |