Chronology of Space Exploration

Contents

• Sun
• Mercury
• Venus
• Moon
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn
• Uranus
• Neptune
• Pluto
• Asteroids
• Comets

Sun

• Pioneer 5 - USA Solar Monitor - (March 11, 1959)
  Space probe is now in a solar orbit.
• Pioneer 6 - USA Solar Probe - 63.4 kg - (December 16, 1965 - Present)
  The Probe is still transmitting from solar orbit.
• Pioneer 7 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (August 17, 1966 - ?)
  Solar-orbiting probe was recently turned off.
• Pioneer 8 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (December 13, 1967 - Present)
  Solar probe is still transmitting from solar orbit.
• Pioneer 9 - USA Solar Probe - 63 kg - (November 8, 1968 - March 3, 1987)
  Still in solar orbit. Died on March 3, 1987.
• Skylab - USA Space Station - (May 26, 1973)
  Skylab, which was America's first space station, was manned for 171 days by three crews during 1973 and 1974. The space station included the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), which astronauts used to take more than 150,000 images of the Sun. Skylab was abandoned in February 1974 and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere in 1979.
• Explorer 49 - USA Solar Probe - 328 kg - (June 10, 1973)
  Solar physics probe placed in lunar orbit.
• Helios 1 - USA & West Germany Solar Probe - 370 kg - (December 10, 1974 - 1975)
  Solar probe is in a solar orbit; came within 47 million kilometers of the Sun.
• Solar Maximum Mission - USA Solar Probe - (February 14, 1980)
  The Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) was designed to provide coordinated observations of solar activity, in particular solar flares, during a period of maximum solar activity. The spacecraft suffered an on-orbit failure. A repair mission on STS-41C in 1984, during which shuttle astronauts rendezvoused with SMM, was successful. SMM collected data until Nov. 24, 1989, and re-entered on Dec. 2, 1989.
• Yohkoh - Japan/USA/England Solar Probe - (August 31, 1991)
  This spacecraft studied high-energy radiation from solar flares.
• Helios 2 - USA & West Germany Solar Probe - (January 16, 1976)
  Solar probe came within 43 million kilometers of the Sun.
• Ulysses - USA & Europe Solar Flyby - 370 kg - (October 6, 1990)
  The Ulysses spacecraft is an international project to study the poles of the Sun and interstellar space above and below the poles. It used Jupiter as a gravity assist to swing out of the ecliptic plane and onward to the poles of the Sun. The Jupiter flyby was on February 8, 1992. The first solar polar passage was in June 1994. The spacecraft passed the solar equator in February 1995 and passed over the north pole in June 1995.
• SOHO - Europe Solar Probe - (December 12, 1995)
  The main scientific purpose of SOHO (Solar and Helispheric Observatory) is to study the Sun's internal structure, by observing velocity oscillations and radiance variations, and to look at the physical processes that form and heat the Sun's corona and that give rise to the solar wind, using imaging and spectroscopic diagnosis of the plasma in the Sun's outer regions coupled with in-situ measurements of the solar wind. SOHO will be put into a "halo orbit" around the L1 Lagrange point -- the point 1.5 million kilometers (932,000 miles) away from us at which the gravitational pull of the Earth balances that of the Sun.

Mercury

• Mariner 10 - USA Mercury/Venus Flyby - 526 kg - (November 3, 1973 - March 24, 1975)
  Mariner 10 was the first dual planet mission. It flew past Venus on February 5, 1974 for a gravity assist to the planet Mercury. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to have an imaging system. It flew past Mercury 3 times on March 29, 1974, September 21, 1974, and March 16, 1975. These three encounters produced over 10,000 pictures with 57% planet coverage. It recorded surface temperatures ranging from 187°C to -183°C on the day and night sides. A weak magnetic field was detected but it failed to detect an atmosphere. Mariner 10 is now in a solar orbit.

Venus

• Venera 1 - USSR Venus Flyby - 643.5 kg - (February 12, 1961)
  Now in a solar orbit.
• Mariner 2 - USA Venus Flyby - 201 kg - (August 27, 1962 - January 3, 1963)
  On December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 arrived at Venus at a distance of 34,800 kilometers and scanned its surface with infrared and microwave radiometers, capturing data that showed Venus's surface to be about 425°C (800°F). Three weeks after the Venus flyby Mariner 2 went off the air on January 3, 1963. It is now in a solar orbit.
• Zond 1 - USSR Venus Flyby - 890 kg - (April 2, 1964)
  Communication lost en route; now in a solar orbit.
• Venera 2 - USSR Venus Flyby - 962 kg - (November 12, 1965 - 1966)
  Communications failed just before arrival. Now in solar orbit.
• Venera 3 - USSR Venus Atmospheric Probe - 958 kg - (November 16, 1965 - 1966)
  Communications failed just before atmosphere entry. Crashed on Venus.
• Venera 4 - USSR Venus Atmospheric Probe - 1,104 kg - (June 12, 1967)
  Venera 4 arrived at Venus on October 18, 1967. This was the first probe to be placed directly into the atmosphere and to return atmospheric data. It showed that the atmosphere was 90-95% carbon dioxide. It detected no nitrogen. The surface temperature reading was 500°C and pressure reading was 75 bar. It was crushed by the pressure on Venus before it reached the surface.
• Mariner 5 - USA Venus Flyby - 244 kg - (June 14 to November, 1967)
  Mariner 5 arrived at Venus on October 19, 1967, one day after Venera 4. It passed within 3,900 kilometers of the planet's surface. It studied the Venusian magnetic field and found that its atmosphere was composed of 85-99% carbon dioxide. It is now in a solar orbit.
• Venera 5 - USSR Venus Atmosphere Probe - 1,128 kg - (January 5, 1969)
  Venera 5 arrived at Venus on May 16, 1969. Along with Venera 6, atmospheric data was returned indicating an atmosphere composed of 93-97% carbon dioxide, 2-5% nitrogen, and less than 4% oxygen. The probe returned data down to within 26 kilometers of surface and was then lost - crushed by the pressure on Venus.
• Venera 6 - USSR Venus Atmosphere Probe - 1,128 kg - (January 10, 1969)
  Venera 6 arrived at Venus on May 17, 1969. Along with Venera 5, atmospheric data was returned indicating an atmosphere composed of 93-97% carbon dioxide, 2-5% nitrogen, and less than 4% oxygen. The probe returned data down to within 11 kilometers of surface and was then lost - crushed by the pressure on Venus.
• Venera 7 - USSR Venus Lander - 1180 kg - (August 17, 1970)
  Venera 7 arrived at Venus on December 15, 1970 and was the first successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet. It used an external cooling device which allowed it to send back 23 minutes of data. The surface temperature was 475°C, and surface pressure was 90 bar.
• Venera 8 - USSR Venus Lander - 1,180 kg - (March 27, 1972)
  Venera 8 arrived at Venus on July 22, 1972. It measure wind speed variations as it descended through the atmosphere: 100 meters/second above 48 kilometers, 40-47 meters/second at 42-48 kilometers, and 1 meter/second below 10 kilometers. It returned data for 50 minutes after it landed.
• Mariner 10 - USA Mercury/Venus Flyby - 526 kg - (November 3, 1973 - March 24, 1975)
  Mariner 10 was the first dual planet mission. It flew past Venus on February 5, 1974 for a gravity assist to the planet Mercury. Mariner 10 was the first spacecraft to have an imaging system. It recorded circulation in the Venusian atmosphere and showed the temperature of the cloud tops to be -23°C. It is now in a solar orbit.
• Venera 9 - USSR Venus Orbiter and Lander - 4,936 kg (June 8, 1975)
  Venera 9 arrived at Venus on October 22, 1975, three days before the arrival of its sister spacecraft, Venera 10. Both orbiters photographed the clouds and looked at the upper atmosphere. Differences in cloud layers were discovered at 57-70 kilometers, 52-57 kilometers and 49-52 kilometers from the surface. The lander arrived on the Venusian surface on November 22, 1975. During a period of 53 minutes, it transmitted the first black and white images of the planets surface. It showed sharp-edged flat rocks and a basaltic terrain. The probe in now in a Venus orbit.
• Venera 10 - USSR Venus Orbiter and Lander - 5,033 kg - (June 14, 1975)
  Venera 10 arrived at Venus on October 25, 1975, three days after the arrival of its sister spacecraft Venera 9. Both orbiters photographed the clouds and looked at the upper atmosphere. Differences in cloud layers were discovered at 57-70 kilometers, 52-57 kilometers and 49-52 kilometers from the surface. The lander arrived on the Venusian surface on November 25, 1975. During a period of 65 minutes, it transmitted black and white images of the planets surface. The terrain was more eroded than at the Venera 9 landing site.
• Pioneer Venus 1 - USA Venus Orbiter - 582 kg - (May 20, 1978 - 1992)
  Pioneer Venus 1 (also known as Pioneer 12) arrived at Venus on December 4, 1978. It operated continuously from 1978 until October 8, 1992, when contact was lost with the spacecraft. It was expected to burn up in the Venusian atmosphere 6 days later. The orbiter was the first spacecraft to use radar in mapping the planet's surface. The electron field experiment detected radio bursts presumably caused by lightening. No magnetic field was detected. From 1978 to 1988 the amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere decreased by 10%. The reason for this decrease is unknown. Perhaps a large volcano erupted just before the orbiter arrived and the amount of sulfur dioxide slowly declined.
• Pioneer Venus 2 - USA Venus Atmosphere Probe - 904 kg - (August 8, 1978)
  Pioneer Venus 2 (also know as Pioneer 13) carried four atmospheric probes. One large and three smaller ones. They arrived at Venus on December 9, 1978 and plunged into the atmosphere. The four probes descended through the atmosphere by parachute while the spacecraft burned up high in the atmosphere. At a height of 70-90 kilometers the probes encountered a fine haze layer. Between 10-50 kilometers there was little atmospheric convection and below 30 kilometers the atmosphere was clear.
• Venera 11 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 4,940 kg - (September 9, 1978)
  Venera 11 landed on Venus on December 25, 1978, and returned data for 95 minutes. The imaging systems failed.
• Venera 12 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 4,940 kg - (September 14, 1978)
  Venera 12 landed on December 21, 1978 and returned data for 110 minutes. Electrical discharges, probably from lightning, were recorded.
• Venera 13 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (October 30, 1981)
  Venera 13 landed on Venus on March 1, 1982. It returned black and white, and the first color panoramic views of the Venusian surface. It also conducted soil analysis using an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The sample was determined to be leucite basalt, a rare rock type on the Earth.
• Venera 14 - USSR Venus Flyby/Lander - 5,000 kg - (November 4, 1981)
  Venera 14 landed on Venus on March 5, 1982. It returned black and white, and color panoramic views of the Venusian surface. It also conducted soil analysis using an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The sample was determined to be tholeiitic basalt similar to that found at mid-ocean ridges on the Earth.
• Venera 15 - USSR Venus Orbiter - 5,000 kg - (June 2, 1983)
  Venera 15 arrived at Venus on October 10, 1983. Its high-resolution imaging system produced images at 1-2 kilometers in resolution. Venera 15 and 16 produced a map of the northern hemisphere from the pole to 30°N. They found several hot spots, possibly caused from volcanic activity.
• Venera 16 - USSR Venus Orbiter - 5,000 kg - (June 7, 1983)
  Venera 16 arrived at Venus on October 14, 1983. Its high-resolution imaging system produced images at 1-2 kilometers in resolution. Venera 15 and 16 produced a map of the northern hemisphere from the pole to 30°N. They found several hot spots, possibly caused from volcanic activity.
• Vega 1 - USSR Venus/Comet Halley Flyby - 4,000 kg - (December 15, 1984)
  Vega 1 flew past Venus on June 11, 1985 on its way for a flyby with comet Halley. It dropped off a Venera style lander and a balloon to investigate the Venusian middle cloud layer. The lander's soil experiment failed. The balloon floated in the atmosphere for about 48 hours at an altitude of 54 kilometers. Between Vega 1 and 2, downward gusts of 1 meter/second were encountered and wind velocities of up to 240 kilometers/hour. The Comet Halley flyby took place on March 6, 1986. The Vega 1 probe is now in a solar orbit.
• Vega 2 - USSR Venus/Comet Halley Probe - 4,000 kg - (December 21, 1984)
  Vega 2 flew past Venus on June 15, 1985 on its way for a flyby with comet Halley. It dropped off a Venera style lander and a balloon to investigate the Venusian middle cloud layer. The lander's soil experiment sampled anorthosite-troctolite which is found in the lunar highlands but is rare on Earth. The balloon floated in the atmosphere for about 48 hours at an altitude of 54 kilometers. Between Vega 1 and 2, downward gusts of 1 meter/second were encountered and wind velocities of up to 240 kilometers/hour. The Comet Halley flyby took place on March 9, 1986. The Vega 2 probe is now in a solar orbit.
• Galileo - USA & Europe Jupiter Orbiter/Atmospheric Probe - 2,222 kg - (October 18, 1989)
  Galileo was designed to study Jupiter's atmosphere, satellites and surrounding magnetosphere for 2 years. In order to get there, it used gravity assist techniques to pick up speed by flying past Venus on February 10, 1990. It then flew past the Earth & Moon on December 8, 1990 and then again on December 8, 1992. It has made encounters asteroid 951 Gaspra on October 29, 1991, and asteroid 243 Ida on August 28, 1993.
• Magellan - USA Venus Orbiter - 3,545 kg - (May 4, 1989 - 1994)
  Magellan was released into Earth's orbit from a space shuttle and then injected into a transfer orbit to Venus by an upper stage. Its primary mission was to map Venus using synthetic aperture radar. The surface of Venus is obscured by thick clouds of carbon dioxide that makes the surface invisible to optical instruments. Magellan arrived at Venus on August 10, 1990. Its radar imaging system was able to produce images at 300 meters/pixel resolution. The spacecraft mapped 99 percent of the planet's surface. In 1994, controllers directed the orbiter into the atmosphere, where it burned up.

Moon

• Pioneer 0 - USA Lunar Orbiter - (August 17, 1958)
  First stage exploded.
• Pioneer 1 - USA Lunar Orbiter - (October 11, 1958)
  Failed to reach escape velocity.
• Pioneer 3 - USA Lunar Flyby - (December 6, 1958)
  Failed to reach escape velocity.
• Luna 1 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 361 kg - (January 2, 1959)
  Luna 1 was the first lunar flyby. It discovered the solar wind and is now in a solar orbit.
• Pioneer 4 - USA Lunar Distant Flyby - 5.9 kg - (March 3, 1959)
  Space probe is now in solar orbit.
• Luna 2 - USSR Lunar Hard Lander - 387 kg - (September 12, 1959)
  Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to impact the surface of the moon on September 14, 1959.
• Luna 3 - USSR Lunar Far Side Flyby - 278.5 kg - (October 4, 1959)
  Encountered the Moon on October 7, 1959 and returned the first image of the Moon's hidden side. Space probe is now in a decayed earth-moon orbit.
• Ranger 3 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 327 kg - (January 26, 1962)
  Lunar probe missed the moon and is now in a solar orbit.
• Ranger 4 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 328 kg - (April 23, 1962)
  First US lunar impact of the Moon.
• Ranger 5 - USA Lunar Flyby - 340 kg - (October 18, 1962)
  Ranger 5 was to be a lander but became a flyby because of a spacecraft failure. It is now in a solar orbit.
• Luna 4 - USSR Lunar Probe - 1,422 kg - (April 2, 1963)
  Lunar 4 was intended to be a lunar lander but missed the Moon. It is now in an Earth Moon orbit.
• Ranger 6 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 361.8 kg - (January 30, 1964)
  Cameras failed; lunar probe impacted the surface of the Moon.
• Ranger 7 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 362 kg - (July 28, 1964)
  Arrived on July 31, 1964, sent pictures back at a close range, and impacted the Moon.
• Ranger 8 - USA Lunar Hard Lander - 366 kg - (February 17, 1965)
  Ranger 8 arrived at the moon on February 20, 1965. It sent back high-resolution pictures until it impacted in Mare Tranquillitatis.
• Ranger 9 - USA Lunar HARD Lander - 366 kg - (March 21, 1965)
  Lunar probe sent pictures of its impact on the moon.
• Luna 5 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,474 kg - (May 9, 1965)
  The lunar soft-lander failed and impacted the moon.
• Luna 6 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,440 kg - (June 8, 1965)
  Missed the moon and is now in a solar orbit.
• Zond 3 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 959 kg - (July 18, 1965)
  Returned pictures of the lunar far side. It is now in a solar orbit.
• Luna 7 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,504 kg - (October 4, 1965)
  Luna 7 failed and impacted the moon.
• Luna 8 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,550 kg - (December 3, 1965)
  Luna 8 failed and impacted the moon.
• Luna 9 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,580 kg - (January 31, 1966)
  Luna 9 landed on the lunar surface and retuned the first photographs from the surface.
• Luna 10 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,597 kg - (March 31, 1966)
  Luna 10 is currently in a lunar orbit.
• Surveyor 1 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 269 kg - (April 30, 1966 to 1967)
  Surveyor 1 was the first American soft landing on the lunar surface.
• Lunar Orbiter 1 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 386 kg - (August 10, 1966)
  Lunar Orbiter 1 orbited the moon, photographed the far side, and then impacted on command.
• Luna 11 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,638 kg - (August 24, 1966)
  Luna 11 is currently in a lunar orbit.
• Surveyor 2 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 292 kg - (September 20, 1966)
  Surveyor 2 failed and impacted the moon.
• Luna 12 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,620 - (October 22, 1966-1967)
  Luna 12 is in a lunar orbit.
• Lunar Orbiter 2 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 390 kg - (November 6, 1966)
  Orbited the moon, photographed the far side for potential Apollo landing sites, then impacted on command.
• Luna 13 - USSR Lunar Soft Lander - 1,700 kg - (December 21, 1966)
  Landed on the lunar surface.
• Lunar Orbiter 3 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 385 kg - (February 5, 1967)
  Orbited the moon, photographed the far side for potential Apollo landing sites, then impacted on command.
• Surveyor 3 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 283 kg - (April 17, 1967)
  Landed on the lunar surface.
• Lunar Orbiter 4 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 390 kg - (May 4, 1967)
  Orbited the moon at a polar inclination and impacted on command.
• Surveyor 4 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 283 kg - (July 14, 1967)
  Lander failed and impacted the moon.
• Explorer 35 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 104 kg - (July 19, 1967 - 1972)
  Orbiter acquired field and particle data.
• Lunar Orbiter 5 - USA Lunar Orbiter - 389 kg (August 1, 1967)
  Orbited the moon at a polar inclination, took high resolution pictures of many important sites, and impacted on command.
• Surveyor 5 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 279 kg - (September 8, 1967)
  Landed on the lunar surface.
• Surveyor 6 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 280 kg - (November 7, 1967)
  Landed on and took off from the lunar surface.
• Surveyor 7 - USA Lunar Soft Lander - 1,036 kg - (January 7, 1968)
  Landed on the lunar surface.
• Luna 14 - USSR Lunar Orbiter - 1,700 kg - (April 7, 1968)
  Luna 14 is in a lunar-solar orbit.
• Zond 5 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,375 kg - (September 14, 1968)
  Lunar fly-around and earth return.
• Zond 6 - USSR Flyby - 5,375 - (November 10, 1968)
  Lunar fly-around and earth return.
• Apollo 8 - USA Lunar Manned Orbiter - 28,883 kg - (December 21-27, 1968)
  Crew: Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., William Anders.
  The crew undertook the first manned lunar fly-around and Earth return. The astronauts made 10 orbits of the moon on Christmas Eve.
• Apollo 10 - USA Lunar Manned Orbiter - 42,530 kg - (May 18-26, 1969)
  Crew: Thomas Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan, John W. Young.
  Manned lunar fly-around and Earth return. Stafford and Cernan tested the Lunar Module, separating it from the Command and Service Module and descended to within 50,000 feet of the lunar surface. The astronauts acquired a large number of excellent 70-mm photographs.
• Luna 15 - USSR Lunar Lander - 2,718 kg - (July 13, 1969)
  Unsuccessful sample return attempt. Crashed during landing.
• Apollo 11 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 43,811 kg - (July 16-24, 1969)
  Crew: Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., Michael Collins.
  Apollo 11 was the first manned lunar landing, which took place on July 20, 1969. The landing site was Mare Tranquillitatis at latitude 0°67' N and longitude 23°49' E. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 21.7 kilograms of soil and rock samples and deployed experiments.
• Zond 7 - USSR Lunar Flyby - 5,979 kg - (August 8, 1969)
  Lunar fly-around and Earth return.
• Apollo 12 - USA Lunar Manned Lander - 43,848 kg - (November 14-24, 1969)
  Crew: Charles Conrad Jr., Alan L. Bean, Richard F. Gordon, Jr.
  Apollo 12 was a manned lunar landing which took place on November 19, 1969. The landing site was Oceanus Procellarum at latitude 3°12' S and longitude 23°23' W. This was the landing site for Surveyor 3. Conrad and Bean retrieved portions of Surveyor 3, including the camera. Samples amounting to 34.4 kilograms were returned from the moon. Astronauts also deployed the Apollo lunar surface experiment package (ALSEP), an automated research station which was also deployed by all subsequent lunar crews.
• Apollo 13 - USA Lunar Flyby - 43,924 kg - (April 11-17, 1970)
  Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr., Fred W. Haise, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr.
  The Apollo 13 mission became one of survival for the astronauts on board. During the translunar coast an explosion destroyed both power and propulsion systems of the Command Service Module. The Lunar Module was used as a lifeboat for the astronauts.
• Luna 16 - USSR Lunar Lander - 5,600 kg - (September 12, 1970)
  Landed on September 20, 1970 at Mare Fecunditaits located at latitude 0°41' S and longitude 56°18' E. A return vehicle brought 100 grams of lunar samples to Earth.
• Zond 8 - USSR Lunar Flyby - (October 20, 1970)
  Lunar flyby and earth return.
• Luna 17 - USSR Lunar Lander and Rover - 5,600 kg - (November 10, 1970 - 1971)