Документ взят из кэша поисковой машины. Адрес оригинального документа : http://www.armaghplanet.com/pdf/Astronotes/Astronotes2007/Astronotes_July_2007.pdf Дата изменения: Tue Sep 20 18:48:48 2011 Дата индексирования: Tue Oct 2 01:31:06 2012 Кодировка: Поисковые слова: п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п п

July 2007

ASTRONOTES
Incorporating FRIENDS' NEWSLETTER This Summer's New Shows Finding Love on the Moon This Summer's Stars Rocket Man! Interview with Mike McKay The Man Who Sold The Moon

ARMAGHPLANETARIUM


2 Astronotes July 2007

Sputnik, Saturn 5 and the Cardboard Rocket
By Julie Thompson, Digital Theatre Manager I am delighted to tell you that in the next few months Armagh Planetarium will be introducing an exciting line-up of new shows in the Digital Theatre. Our shows will cover the drama of the Space Race, a fun tour of the Solar System for families and an up-dated live night sky show. It is a fantastic new programme of shows with something for everyone. We have a duty to cater to audiences of all ages, including very small people who may not be prepared to sit through thirty minutes of total darkness in a traditional show. Since we reopened last year, we have been presenting `Sunshine' as a special show for children under six, but starting in July the Digital Theatre will feature `Secret of the Cardboard Rocket'. This is a 30 minute presentation told as an exciting story, an approach to which will appeal to little people, their older brothers and sisters and their mums and dads.

A fun tour of the Solar System for all the family is promised in `Secret of the Cardboard Rocket'. each other, and why our Earth is such a special place. Children of all ages will be mesmerized by the incredible full dome action (and enjoy the very catchy music soundtrack) and I expect this to be a very popular show. There will be another new show this Summer, to celebrate fifty years of space exploration. This is `Dawn of the Space Age' and for sheer spectacle it is hard to beat. This new and visually stunning and authoritative history of space exploration from Sputnik 1 to the present will make its UK premiere at Armagh Planetarium. The show covers Yuri Gagarin's flight, the race between America and Russia to reach the Moon and comes right up to date with a recreation of SpaceShipOne's award-winning flights. There are many amazing facts which will leave audiences thinking "I never knew that!" For example the show tells how close Gagarin's flight came to disaster and how the fact he had to eject from the capsule was covered up. There is the story of how near Neil Armstrong came to death too when his Gemini craft went into a near-fatal spin. It is a really dramatic show with re-enactments of space missions in stunning detail - watching the

"the young astronauts show you what could only be dreamed of before"
The show features the daring exploits of a young girl and boy who make a rocket from a cardboard box so they can visit the Sun, Moon and planets. The characters take along everything they need, including a talking astronomy book! In the most dynamic fashion possible, the young astronauts show you what could only be dreamed of before. Their adventures take them (and the audience) throughout the Solar System from the boiling surface of the Sun to the icy rings of Saturn. `Secret of the Cardboard Rocket' will be a great show for introducing kids to the Solar System. They will learn what a planet is, how the planets are different from

Image Credit: Clark Planetarium


July 2007 Astronotes 3 Saturn 5 rocket launch is like riding alongside the real thing! Finally, our flagship show, `Pole Position' has been up-dated to cover the skies this Summer. The results of the latest astronomical research have been added to the show's script but there are also some gorgeous new all-sky images. These are the first results of Armagh Planetarium's collaboration with world-renowned astrophotographer David Malin which I announced in the last issue of Astronotes. Audiences in the Planetarium will be the first in the world to experience these exquisite masterpieces. Once again, the Digital theatre will be delivering a varied selection of amazing shows to our visitors this Summer. Whether you want to know more about space and astronomy, to treat your family to a fun experience or would just like be to be entertained by state of the art visual effects, there will be something for you in Armagh Planetarium. (Further details will be posted on www.armaghplanet.com. Remember pre-booking of seats is essential. )

Dawn of the Space Age Starting this Summer, this show looks at space travel from an international perspective.

Moon Phases, July 2007
Sat 7 July Sat 14 July Sun 22 July Mon 30 July Last Quarter NEW MOON First Quarter FULL MOON

Can you find Love on the Moon?
By Wendy McCorry, Science Communicator How would you like to visit a place where you could experience Bliss, Joy and Love at the same time, and where all ladies are guaranteed to find their Romeo? Staying in the Ritz (Jeans are permitted, as long as you have Manners) and wake up to the delicious sight of Bacon every morning. Spend your time taking in the wonderful spectacle of the local wildlife ­ Falcon, Parrot, Swann, Dove, Lamb, Fox and Wolf. If you get thirsty after all that exploring, don't worry, in this locality you can always find Beer. Every one of your needs is catered for, with a Cook, Gardner and Draper close at hand, (but do steer clear of the Leakey Plummer). Your spiritual needs are also looked after- you are welcome to visit the local Rabbi, Nunn, Abbot or Pope! Think all of this sounds too good to be true? Well of course every foreign trip has its potential risks ­ there's always the small chance you could end up in Hell, feeling Grimm and trying to avoid the Grave. So where is this unique holiday destination? Is it Spain, New Zealand or the Caribbean? Well, you could say it is quite literally out of this world, as

Image Credit: MirageIIID


4 Astronotes July 2007 in 1977, a lunar crater was named after our founder, Dr Eric Lindsay. Lindsay Crater is approximately 33km across and is located on the near side of the Moon (the side we can see from Earth), between two plains - Mare Tranquillitatis and Mare Nubium.

Image Credit: NOAO

"...some craters are Black, Green and Brown"
Many of the smaller craters are given common first names from a variety of different languages, such as Alan (Irish), Boris (Russian) and SungMei (Chinese). So next time you take a moonlit stroll along the beach, why not impress that certain someone

Earth's Moon The prominent craters Copernicus and Tycho are clearly visible The dark areas are the `maria' or seas. Don't pack your swimsuit though as they are ancient `seas' of cooled lava! all these amazing facilities can be found on the Moon! Now, before you run off to pack your suitcase, you may be disappointed to learn that no, a holiday resort has not been built on the Moon (yet!). These are, in fact, the names of some of the craters found on the Moon's surface. Craters are (mostly) circular pits caused by the impacts of asteroids, comets and meteorites colliding with the Moon. Unlike the Earth, the Moon has no atmosphere to protect it from these highspeed bombardments, and no wind or rain to take away the remnants of such events.

"the Moon has no atmosphere to protect it from bombardments "
The larger lunar craters are named after famous scientists, artists and scholars such as Curie, Da Vinci and Darwin. Look at the Moon through a pair of binoculars and you may be able to see the prominent Copernicus Crater in the upper left quadrant. Then take your eye down towards the Southern Pole to see the magnificent Tycho Crater, with its rays of ejected material extending for thousands of kilometres. As is only fitting, there are also craters named after astronautsGagarin, Armstrong and Aldrin, to name but a few. Visitors to the Planetarium may be aware that,

"Magnificent desolation" was Buzz Aldrin's memorable description of the Moon's surface made as he stood there in July 1969. This is apparent from this image of the crater Copernicus photographed thirty five years ago during the final Apollo lunar mission. with the interesting fact that Frost has been seen on the Moon. Ask your friends what colour they think the Moon is, and then amaze them by telling them that, actually, some of its craters are Black, White, Green and Brown! And if you happen to be talking to a certain George W. Bush, you might like to casually inform him that Osama can currently be found on the Moon!

Image Credit: NASA


July 2007 Astronotes 5

Cork's Castle of Astronomy
By Robert Hill, NISO Access to real science through astronomical education and research has been given a tremendous boost in Ireland this month with the opening of the new Blackrock Castle Observatory visitor centre in Cork. Blackrock Castle, which dates from the 16th century has been completely refurbished to act as an inspirational centre for scientific research, outreach and communication. The project is a joint venture between Cork City Council, Cork Institute of Technology and a private benefactor. The unique feature of this project is the principle of encouraging interaction between adults and children and science.

"The audience designs a mission to divert a comet from Earth"
I attended the launch of Blackrock Castle visitor centre, which houses a first-rate, fully interactive astronomy experience. The main theme of the exhibition is "The Search for Extreme Life in the Universe". This includes a tour of the Universe, using interactive floor-to-ceiling screens and a cinematic experience where the audience directly influences the design of a vital space mission to divert a comet from colliding with the Earth, using scientific principles to make critical decisions along the way. Those that remember Armagh Planetarium's interactive Star Shows in our theatre will realise the potential for informal learning using this kind of presentation. The centre also houses a radio telescope and an optical telescope. One of the reasons for my visit was to discuss possible collaboration between the Blackrock facilities (including the construction of Ireland's first robotic observatory develBlackrock Castle Robert Hill with Jane Jerry, Executive Director of the Exploration Station project in Dublin and Dr Niall Smith, Head of research at Cork Institute of Technology. oped by Cork Institute of Technology astronomers) and those offered by Armagh Planetarium, NISO and the Faulkes Robotic Telescope project. We all wish Dr Niall every success with and look forward to projects in the near Smith (Director) and his team the Blackrock Castle project engaging in exciting joint future.

If you find yourself in the Cork region please do visit the facility. It is not to be missed and being sited on the banks of the River Lee must make it one of the most beautiful astronomical facilities anywhere!

Image Credit: Robert Hill, NISO


6 Astronotes July 2007

Summer Stars
By Paul O'Neill, Education Support Officer Get away from the city lights and the summer skies may reward you with some great views of the Milky Way. If you go outside on a July or August evening and look towards the south east you will probably notice three bright stars which form a large triangle. These three stars are Deneb (in the constellation of Cygnus the swan), Altair (in Aquila the eagle) and Vega (in Lyra the harp). The Milky Way runs down through Cygnus (sometimes referred to as the Northern Cross) and into the constellation of Aquila. Around the world, the summer sky is celebrated in folklore. In Japan 7th July is the Star Festival (Tanabatta). In China the festival is called Qi Xi. The Emperor of the sky (Polaris) had a daughter called Orihime (the star Vega). Orihime was a great weaver and the Emperor was always so
Image Credit: via Wikimedia.org

pleased with the beautiful clothes made for him by his daughter. But Orihime was not so happy; she had become a young woman and wanted to fall in love. She never had a chance for romance because of all the weaving she had to do. The Emperor decided to help out and arranged for her to meet Hikoboshi (Altair). They met and fell in love. Everything went well for a time but then the Emperor noticed that he wasn't receiving any new clothes. He therefore decided that his own self interests were more important than his daughter's happiness. He placed Orihime on one side of the celestial river (the Milky Way) and Hikoboshi on the other, allowing them to meet on just one night a year ­ the seventh night of the seventh month. On this night the heavenly boat man (the Moon) carries Orihime across the river to meet her lover. The Shoshoni tribe of Wyoming explain the Milky Way with this story: one day grizzly bear (the constellation Cygnus) decided he wanted to go hunting in the sky. He found a very high mountain and began to climb. As he got higher it became colder and colder, ice and snow stuck to his legs and paws. Eventually he got to the top and climbed out onto the sky, as he walked across the sky he left a trail of sparkling ice crystals which we can see as the Milky Way.

So what about the science of the summer stars? All three stars; Deneb, Altair and Vega are spectral type A stars. This means they Cygnus drawn by Johannes Hevelius for Uranographia published in 1690. appear bluish white to our eyes. Altair and Vega are Note that the view is reversed following the tradition of celestial globes which depict the celestial sphere as seen from "outside". Lyra is shown as a quite close but Deneb is at harp held in the claws of a vulture; ancient middle-eastern cultures saw the least 2000 light years away. It is one of the most lumiconstellation as a vulture, only later was Lyra identified as a lyre


July 2007 Astronotes 7 nous stars known; perhaps as much as a quarter of a million times more luminous than the Sun. Deneb's solar wind is perhaps tens of thousands of times stronger than the Sun's. If Deneb were as close as Proxima Centauri (our nearest stellar neighbour) it would be as bright as the full moon. Altair is only about 16 or 17 light years away. It is rotating so fast, about 60 times faster than the Sun that it is oblate ­ like a squashed football.

IRAS discovered a debris disc around Vega
Vega is a little further away than Altair ­ about 25 light years. It is the fifth brightest star in the sky, third brightest in the northern Sky. Since Vega is more luminous than the Sun it will use up its supply of hydrogen fuel more quickly, about ten times faster than the Sun, so Vega must be a young star. Back in the 1980's the very successful Infra-red Astronomy Satellite (IRAS), discovered a debris disk around Vega. Our own Sun may once have had such a disk around it before the newly formed planets had cleared their orbits of debris. Vega might have planets in orbit around it. Vega is also a fast rotator; in fact if it were rotating just 7% faster it would disintegrate. There are other things to look out for amongst the summer stars. As I've already mentioned, the Milky Way is high in the sky at this time of the year. If you have binoculars you should sweep

Tanabata Crowds in Tokyo enjoy the festivities. along it ­ you'll see that it is made of lots and lots of stars. As you sweep along the Milky Way you might notice some small clumps of stars; there are a couple of open clusters in Cygnus ­ M39 and M29. The second brightest star in Cygnus - called Albeiro is a double star, perhaps the most beautiful double star in the sky. The second brightest star in the constellation of Lyra is an eclipsing binary star with a period of almost 13 days. Its magnitude varies between 3.3 and 4.3. A binary star is two stars in orbit around each other; if they are very far away we won't be able to see them as two separate stars ­ they will appear as one star. If one of the pair is fainter than the other and passes in front of the brighter star it appears to us as though the star fades and brightens over some period of time ­ this is an eclipsing binary. There will be an article on variable stars in a later issue of Astronotes

By Tom Mason, Director

Mike McKay: Rocket Scientist (Part 1)

At the end of April 2007 Digital Theatre Manager Julie Thompson and I visited the European Space Agency (ESA) facility at Darmstadt, Germany to meet with Mike McKay and other ESA personnel to discuss future joint projects. Belfast born Michael McKay grew up under Divis

and Black Mountain, so from an early age he has been accustomed to look up to the hills and the sky. When he was still at school, like most science mad teenagers, he wanted to be a "fighter jock". He worked at weekends at Newtownards Flying Club, washing down aircraft, cleaning out the hanger and other odd jobs. In return he got to ride in the spare seat of many different aircraft. He got his gliding licence and enjoyed

Image Credit: Tokyo Tourist Information


8 Astronotes July 2007 next generation of ESA spacecraft. He now runs ESA's Exploration Missions Office, and is responsible for the operation of ESA's future Space Exploration Programme, Aurora, covering robotic and eventually manned missions to the Moon and Mars. Mike is one of hundreds of engineers and scientists who make the ESA missions work. He told us during our visit, and tour of the ESOC facility, that the most important element of success is the formation of the flight operations team. Every mission is meticulously planned. It is then simulated in the flight operations room with all of the team facing real time situations where the life or death of the spacecraft and its mission is tested to the point of failure. Faults and crises are simulated to train the mission teams, pushing them to the extremes, where they become used to handling up to six concurrent crises or glitches distributed throughout the space-based and ground systems. Successfully recovering the mission is part of a normal day's work. The outcome of this in depth training is that when it comes to the real thing, stresses and challenges of the launches and orbital insertions are totally familiar to all of the team, and some even express amazement during the real mission that all is going smoothly, as the simulations are, of necessity, filled with incidents and anomalies. The end result is that Mike knows his team can cope not only with the "normal" flight plan, but can confidently handle any situation as a single professional team.
Image Credit: Armagh Planetarium

Local Hero Mike McKay in the ESOC flight control room. the freedom of unpowered flight. But his interest in space was triggered by the Apollo missions, watching satellites crossing the night skies, and following `Lost in Space' and `Doctor Who'! He trained as an aeronautical engineer at the Queen's University of Belfast and then joined the European Space Agency in 1979, returning briefly to Queen's to complete an MSc in Computer Science. He worked for three years at ESA's European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) in the Netherlands before establishing himself in Germany at ESA's Mission Control Centre in Darmstadt. From there, over the past twenty-five years, he has worked on a wide range of missions in the European space programme.

His experience as a rocket scientist varies, from probing the far flung corners of our Universe with the EXOSAT observatory, to monitoring the fragile environment of our own blue-green planet with Europe's ERS Earth Observation missions. More recently, as Flight Operations Director, he has been responsible for the operation of ESA's Lunar and Mars Missions, SMART-1 and Mars Express, which continue to deliver outstanding scientific results. Later, he headed ESA's Advanced Mission Concepts and Technologies Office, identifying and testing new technologies and mission operations concepts for the

Oceans of Mars? This Mars Express image shows what may be a frozen sea covered in dust near the Red Planet's Equator.

Image Credit: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum)

"successfully recovering the mission is part of a normal day's work"


July 2007 Astronotes 9 Astronotes: Mike, you work for the European Space Agency. What precisely do you do? MMcK: I get involved from the early design stages of a space mission, looking after all the operational aspects of the mission; from the design of the on-board computers and software, to the overall operations concepts dealing with how to fly the mission, to designing mission control and building up and training the mission teams. At Mission Control I am responsible for the design, and that it meets the needs of the mission, within the agreed cost and on schedule, making sure that at Mission Control we are go for launch. When it comes close to launch I become the Flight Operations Director, responsible for the mission operations and ensuring the mission is a success.

Europe's Martian Invasion The ExoMars lander will deliver the rover to a specific location using an inflatable braking device or parachute system. Mike will discuss this project in the second part of this article Astronotes: Why did you join ESA and did you ever envisage this as a career path? MMcK: In the summer before I finished University I went to work in America, and spent two months working for a flight test company in the Mojave Desert. I was asked to design flight test equipment and experimental aircraft parts that I never thought I could do. It gave me the opportunity to take on exciting challenges that I wasn't sure I could handle. It made me realise that we all have the potential to do things that, at first glance, we think impossible. If we can just push ourselves outside our comfort zone to take on that somewhat daunting challenge we can realise our true potential. So, on returning for my final year at University, I decided to really look upwards, beyond my dreams of aircraft, and focus on the stars and space. I guess that to work in space was always an unconscious dream, born from watching Neil Armstrong taking those first steps onto the Moon, but filed in the back of my mind, stamped IMPOSSIBLE. Being part of the space programme was not for normal people. My brief experience in the Mojave Desert told me it was time to rethink my definition of IMPOSSIBLE, and that building and flying spacecraft for the European Space Agency should not belong to IMPOSSIBLE if I had the courage and determination to try. Astronotes: What is ESOC? Why is it at Darmstadt? MMcK: ESOC stands for the European Space

"...we all have the potential to do things we think impossible"
Astronotes: For our younger readers, do you wear a white coat to work, and do you have a crazy scientist haircut? MMcK: Today's rocket scientists don't wear white coats, but occasionally they have been known to wear white waistcoats during launches. I strongly recommend the film Apollo 13. It does a great job at capturing the real atmosphere at Mission Control and what mission operations are all about. As for the weird haircut, only after I've been to a bad barber or if I'm just having a plain bad hair day!

Mayer and Bond craters seen by SMART-1 Mike was involved with ESA's Moon mission.

Image Credit: ESA/Space-X Space Exploration Institute

Image Credit: ESA - AOES Medialab


10 Astronotes July 2007 Operations Centre and it is the Mission Control for the European Space Agency's missions. Each of the major countries funding ESA wished to host an ESA establishment. ESA HQ is in Paris, ESTEC is near Amsterdam, ESRIN, the Earth Observation data archiving and informatics centre, is outside Rome, and ESAC, the Science data archiving centre, is outside Madrid. ESOC is in Darmstadt because it is close to Frankfurt International Airport and has close ties with the Darmstadt Technical University. (This interview will be continued in issue of Astronotes when Mike will thoughts on the future direction of spaceflight and extraterrestrial life. the next share his European ) STOP PRESS By the time that you read this Mike will have been awarded an Honourary Doctorate from the Queen's University of Belfast, which is the University's way of acknowledging his massive contribution to space research. It is also recognition for one of Belfast's scientific exports, and of the fact that he readily gives his time to institutions like ours when we need a lively and informative talk. This is a well-deserved award, so from all at Armagh Planetarium, congratulations Dr McKay!

The man who sold the Moon
By Colin Johnston, Science Communicator July 7th 2007 will mark the centenary of the birth of a figure whose huge influence in the field of American spaceflight is often overlooked. This man inspired many young people to follow paths that would lead them to careers as NASA engineers or, in some cases, astronauts. However he was not a space scientist or a rocket engineer, Robert A. Heinlein was a science fiction writer. After ill-health forced him out of his chosen career as a naval officer, Robert Heinlein pursued a variety of jobs before supporting himself by writing. A genuinely talented writer, he could probably have made his fortune as Hollywood scriptwriter or by churning out Raymond Chandler-type mystery novels. However he chose to concentrate on science fiction instead. His writing career started in the late 1930s with stories published in the then hugely popular `pulp' magazines and straight away grabbed the attention of readers. His stories were different; slick, exciting, full of convincing detail and, in an era when stories featuring aliens and spaceships were regarded as very silly, seemed very grown up. In the years before spaceflight was possible, Heinlein advocated it loudly. He wanted to make it happen (and perhaps he helped it happen). His knowledge of astronomy and technology were state-of-the-art and was cleverly worked into his stories. To read his books now, and millions still do, show a nostalgic vision of a Solar System that never was, where colonists from Earth share the Red Planet with ancient and enigmatic Martians and blue-collar spacemen steer tramp freighters between planets. In a long career he wrote some classic novels including `The Door into Summer' and `The Moon is a Harsh Mistress' and the controversial novels `Starship Troopers' and `Stranger in a Strange Land'. Sadly the novels written in the final stage of his career (post 1970) can be charitably described only as `eccentric' and should be avoided. However Heinlein's 1950s novels for teenagers ­ the `Juveniles'- are his most influential works. Exciting, engaging, thought-provoking and never patronizing, these stories are `coming of age' stories where adverse circumstances force a teenage hero (the main character is always male, but strong female characters appear prominently


July 2007 Astronotes 11 in most of the stories) into an adventure across space. By the end, the protagonist has learned a lot about the Universe, even more about how society works and most importantly of all learned about himself. These books were read avidly by young boys (and girls) for decades afterwards. I was about eleven when my father brought me home one of these books from the library. It was called `Space Cadet' and, just from the title, Dad thought I would like it. He was very right. As soon as I could, I read them all. All of them were good, `Time for the Stars' and `Citizen of the Galaxy' were great, and `Have Spacesuit, Will Travel', well, that was a masterpiece.

"the Apollo 15 crew named a lunar crater after a Heinlein character"
I was not the only the one who loved those stories and ended up working in the science field. Others are spread throughout the aerospace industry worldwide. There are astronauts who will tell you that they were first inspired by Robert Heinlein' works to pursue careers connected to space. Notably the crew of Apollo 15 acknowledged him during their 1971 lunar mission and named a crater, Rhysling, after a character

The Man who Sold the Moon (1949) tells of the first flight to our satellite by a lone astronaut in the year 1978. There were lots of stories like that written in those days. But in Heinlein's tale the actual flight happens off-stage, and the story is really about the unscrupulous business man who sponsors the mission. from Heinlein's `The Green Hills of Earth'. It is a measure of Heinlein's stature in the field that he was invited to be a commentator during the live TV coverage of the Apollo 11 mission. Later, along with fellow science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke, he was consulted by Carl Sagan on the content of the Voyager Interstellar Record, the message for potential alien space travellers attached to the Voyager probes. In latter years, various organizations and individuals which aim to increase the private sector involvement, rather than rely on government funding, in the exploration and exploitation of space have rather adopted Heinlein as their patron saint. Robert Heinlein passed away in July 1988 and shortly afterwards NASA awarded him posthumously its Medal for Distinguished Public Service. Heinlein Crater, in the Southern Hemisphere of Mars is also named in his honour. Thanks to his influential writings, he really can be considered the Man Who Sold The Moon. (Most of Robert Heinlein's books are currently out of print in the UK, but US editions are available from on-line bookshops or check out second-hand book dealers and charity shops)

Have Space Suit.. (1958) is the story of Kip Russell who longs to travel to the Moon but must make do with restoring a scrap space suit. Fate intervenes however, and he does make it to the Moon (and other much, much more distant worlds)

Image Credit: via Wikimedia.org

Image Credit: via Wikimedia.org


12 Astronotes July 2007

Image of the Month
This could be an image taken shortly after launch by a camera attached to a Space Shuttle's external fuel tank but it is actually a computer-generated scene from our new fulldome show `Dawn of the Space Age' . At launch the shuttle Orbiter is attached to the 47m (154 ft) tank which carries 720 tonnes of liquid hydrogen and All shuttle missions are launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. There are two launch pads, Complex 39A and 39B, built originally for
Image Credit: Mirage IIID

rocket boosters are attached to the side of the tank. These are discarded when empty and recovered from the sea to be reused.

oxygen for the three main engines at the rear of the Orbiter. These fuels must be kept very cold so the tank is coated in a 2.5 cm (1 inch) thick coat of spray on foam insulation. The dangers of fragments of foam striking the Orbiter's heat shield was only learned from the Columbia tragedy. The Orbiter's engines are not sufficient to push the craft into orbit, so two 45m (147 ft) long solid-fuel

Saturn rockets in the 1960s. These pads will be modified for the future Ares series of launch vehicles. Some amazing movies of real space launches made by cameras attached to the shuttle or other rockets can be viewed at http://www.eclipticenterprises. com/gallery_rocketcam.shtml . (Caption by Colin Johnston, Science Communicator)

www.armaghplanet.com
Astronotes, Incorporating Friends' Newsletter is published monthly by Armagh Planetarium, College Hill, Armagh, Co. Armagh BT61 9DB Tel: 02837 523689 Email: cj@armaghplanet.com Editor: Colin Johnston ©2007 Armagh Planetarium All rights reserved