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Mercury, Nov/Dec 1995 Table of Contents

by Marco Arturo Moreno-Corral, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
and Mars A. Rodríguez, Marsian International

(c) 1995 Astronomical Society of the Pacific

In the July Atlantic Monthly, Mexican intellectual Jorge Castañeda wrote that every segment of Mexican life looks to history as "the essence of the present." Astronomy is no exception.

Astronomy in Mexico has evolved rapidly, especially in the second half of the century. But to understand the advances of astronomy in Mexico today, we must look first to the past. Modern Mexico is linked to its past by rich cultural traditions. Of the ancient civilizations that inhabited Mexico -- Olmec, Zapotec, Maya, Toltec, Aztec -- the most advanced was the Mayan, whose culture flourished from A.D. 250 to 800. Their brilliance encompassed great works of astronomy, mathematics, calendrics, writing, and architecture [see "Emissaries to the Stars: The Astronomers of Ancient Maya," January/Feburary, p. 15]. The Aztecs were the last powerful civilization, their capital falling to the conquistadors Aug. 13, 1521.

Although these pre-Columbian people had notable intellectual and astronomical achievements, their knowledge did not influence the astronomical development of modern Mexico. The Spanish conquest violently erased the advances achieved by those cultures. The Mexican astronomical traditions of today have their roots in the colonial period (1521-1821), when Western civilization was implanted in the New Spain.

The first teachings about astronomy were made by the Academy of Arts of the Real y Pontíficia Universidad de México, established in 1553. The texts used were written by Fray Alonso de la Veracruz. His 1557 book Physica Speculatio (Speculations About Physics) was a typical medieval text: It advocated a geocentric universe, immutable and perfect. This was the universally accepted version in 16th-century Europe.

Star Maps

In 1606, the book Reportorio de los Tiempos emerged from a publisher in the novo-hispanic capital. Its author was a versatile individual named Enrico Martínez. He provided knowledge to the inhabitants of New Spain, especially farmers, and included ephemerides and eclipse tables for the period 1606-1620. But his greatest achievement was the calculation of the meridian of Mexico City.

From this practical foundation, Mexican astronomy steadily broadened in scope. Towards the end of the 16th century, many important scientific texts were introduced to Mexican libraries: ephemerides, astronomical tables, and works on different aspects of the cosmos. In 1600 Mexico acquired its first copy of the principal text of Copernicus. And in 1638 the Universidad de México opened its School of Astrology and Mathematics, the first of its type in the Americas. Despite its name, the school taught astronomical science as it was developing in Europe in the 17th century.

Diverse writings indicate that around this time the first telescopes used specifically for astronomical work arrived in Mexico. Observational reports from this period showed a significant increase in precision, presumably the result of these instruments. Most of the texts dealt with observations of eclipses and comets, and part of this material had strong links to astrology.

A particular controversy arose over the great comet of 1681-1682. José Escobar published Discurso Cometologico y Relación del Nuevo Cometa, in which he gave astrological interpretations of the effects the comet had on the population, weather, and crops. At the same time, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora published Libra Astronómica y Philosofica. This book reported his telescopic observations of the comet and supported arguments against the Aristotelian concept of the origin of such bodies. It was a challenge to the world view of the novo-hispanic elite -- including such personalities as the influential European missionary and explorer Eusebio Kino -- and an illustration of the change of ideas at the end of the 17th century. The publication of this work is considered the beginning of modern astronomy in Mexico.

The battle between astronomy and astrology, and geocentric and heliocentric conceptions of the universe, raged in New Spain into the 18th century. Despite the strong opposition of the Catholic church, the Copernican and Newtonian paradigms gained widespread acceptance by the end of the century.

Astrologers and Spaniards

As Mexican astronomy was developing its historical path, a decisive event was taking place for all Mexicans: freedom from Spain. It started on Sept. 16, 1810 when Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and company rose up in arms to begin the Independence Revolution. The Army of the Three Guarantees (Religion, Union, and Independence) entered Mexico City on Sept. 27 and the first constitution of Mexico was promulgated on Oct. 4. A week later, Don Guadalupe Victoria became the republics first president.

The first half of the 19th century was marked by armed conflicts among Mexicans and with other countries, an environment that hindered the continuation of the scientific development from the last phase of the colonial period. There were many attempts to establish astronomical observatories within the newly liberated Mexico, but it was not until 1878 that the National Astronomical Observatory was established. Among its instruments were a meridian circle with an 8-inch diameter objective and two refracting telescopes 13 and 15 inches in diameter. In 1881, the institution started to publish the Anuario, an ephemeral work similar to the Astronomical Almanac. This work has been published year after year and it is sold throughout the country. It provides essential information to the professionals who survey and work on the land. Regular research results of the astronomers of that time were normally published in the Boletin del Observatorio. Although this publication was distributed internationally, it did not create a large impact because it was published only in Spanish.

The founding of the national observatory allowed Mexican astronomers to establish strong collaborations with their colleagues in other countries. They participated in the international campaign to produce a photographic catalogue called Chart of the Sky (Cart du Ciel), beginning in 1887. The Mexican contribution was to observe the sky from declination 10 through 16 degrees. Out of the 18 participating observatories in the project, only eight completed their commitment. The National Observatory of Mexico was among them. These astronomers also participated in the multinational effort to use the asteroid Eros to measure the Astronomical Unit to greater precision.

From Chinameca to Tonantzintla

When the revolution ended, Mexico created new social structures, including professional societies, new schools, and new careers. In 1938, the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México created the Faculty of Science. Some of the professors were Mexicans who obtained their Ph.D.s in astrophysics from prestigious institutions in the United States. Today, the Instituto de Astronomía at the university is developing its own doctorate program. In a few months, the first Ph.D.s in astrophysics will obtain their degrees from this university.

In 1942, a new institution was formed in the small village of Tonantzintla, near the city of Puebla: the Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica. In the 1950s, it had a small but active group of researchers, among them Guillermo Haro. Their main instrument, a photographic Schmidt telescope, started to produce new and outstanding astronomical data on the Herbig-Haro stellar objects [see "Flame Throwers of the Galaxy," March/April, p. 31], stellar flares, planetary nebulae, faint blue star-like objects, and blue galaxies.

This young generation transformed astronomy in Mexico, which until then had focussed on positional astronomy. By the beginning of the next decade, Mexico had about 10 professional astronomers. They had to spend considerable time and effort developing an adequate infrastructure. The first great reflecting telescope, 40 inches in diameter, started operation in 1961 in Tonantzintla. Its ancillary equipment -- camera, photometers, spectrographs, and Fabry-Perot interferometer -- made feasible new research projects, notably involving gaseous nebulae and planetary nebulae. The instruments played an equally important role in the education of new astronomers. A large part of its observing time was used by physics students from the national university.

Over the past three decades, these two astronomical institutions -- the Institute of Astronomy of the national university and the National Institute of Astrophysics have grown. The university now operates two observatories, the larger being in the Sierra of San Pedro Mártir, Baja California, at 2,830 meters (9,280 feet). It has three modern reflective telescopes of 80, 60, and 33 inches [see "High Atop the Baja," January/February 1994, p. 29]. The other observatory of the university is in Tonantzintla; it includes a 40-inch reflector and the historic 13-inch refractor.

The astrophysical institute of Tonantzintla is equipped with another 80-inch reflecting telescope in the Cerro de la Mariquita in Cananea, Sonora. It is 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) due south of Kitt Peak, from where the Mexican dome can be seen. It houses the Schmidt camera that used to be in Tonantzintla.

Spin-offs

The standards of Mexican astronomy have benefits for the society of this country. The astronomical centers bring together specialists in optics, electronics, and instrumentation. These experts have established new research institutes, fortifying the scientific and technological infrastructure in Mexico.

Astronomers have made efforts to divulge data to the public, especially about special events like the total solar eclipses of March 7, 1970 and July 11, 1991 and the Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet collision with Jupiter in summer 1994. This information has helped to counteract negative publicity about catastrophic astrological aspects. Months before the 1991 eclipse, Mexican astronomers created a national committee that set technical specifications for the viewing filters to be used by the public for observing the eclipse. Around 50 million observers might otherwise have suffered serious eye damage.

Within the last few years, Mexican scientists have published many astronomical texts in Spanish for elementary through university students. It may seem trivial work, but remember that most science texts are written in English. It is not easy to find modern texts written by specialists in their native language.

Today, Mexico has about 80 professional astronomers. This is a small number compared with the total population of about 90 million people. Yet only four decades ago, there were only 10 professional astronomers. The advancements have been significant, and Mexican astronomy is now world-class. The prospects for the future appear equally bright.

Presently, in the field of instrumentation, the Institute of Astronomy has a proposal, now being reviewed by the Science and Technology National Bureau, to build a 6.5-meter infrared-optical telescope. It has been delayed because of the economic crisis of the country. The institute is developing a new division in Morelia, 240 kilometers (150 miles) west of Mexico City. It will concentrate on the theoretical and radio studies of star formation and on the education of new researchers. Another major project is the 50-meter millimeter telescope sponsored by the National Institute of Astrophysics in collaboration with the University of Massachusetts.

Astronomy has always been part of Mexico. With good faith, financial support, and dedication, the field will remain strong, opening up new horizons for future generations.

MARCO ARTURO MORENO-CORRAL is an astronomer at the Instituto de Astronomía of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Ensenada, Baja California. The fields of his astronomical interest are stellar formation, planetary nebulae, and the history of astronomy in Mexico. His email address is mam@bufadora.astrosen.unam.mx.

MARS A. RODRÍGUEZ is president and consultant for Marsian International in Santa Ana, Calif. She informed us that she views astronomy with her heart, loves the field of instrumentation for astronomy, and strongly believes that scientific education in the classroom should start at a very early age, especially in astronomy. Her email address is MarsARS@aol.com.

Illustration captions

The National Observatory of Mexico in Mexico City, circa 1920. Photo courtesy of Mars A. Rodríguez.

The 1-meter (40-inch) reflector at Tonantzintla, circa 1973. Photo courtesy of Mars A. Rodríguez.

Preparation of a heliophotograph to register sunspots, circa 1890. Photo courtesy of Mars A. Rodríguez.

The 2-meter (80-inch) reflector at San Pedro Mártir, Baja California. Photo courtesy of Mars A. Rodríguez.

Sidebar: Astronomy Education in Mexico

by Julieta Fierro, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

(c) 1995 Astronomical Society of the Pacific

The teaching of astronomy in Mexico is extremely limited, and this is part of a wider problem in Mexican education. The school system consists of obligatory elementary school (nine years), divided into grammar and middle school (six and three years); high school (three years); and university (about five years). The average educational level in the country is three years of grammar school.

At the grammar-school level, teachers discuss Earth movements, seasons, eclipses, tides, and the very general properties of the solar system and the universe. The main problem with the curriculum is that it has little to do with childrens direct experience. For instance, the curriculum takes almost no account of seasonal variations throughout the country. It seems that we are imitating what is taught in northern countries. Some teachers have serious misconceptions about seasonal and lunar phenomena -- and so do some of the textbooks.

Until recently grammar-school teachers did not go to college. Now all instructors must have a college degree, and courses are offered, in urban areas, to help teachers to update their skills. New geography books have been written, and their contents are supervised by a panel of specialists.

The middle-school astronomy curriculum is almost entirely a repetition of what was not taught clearly in grammar school. The most abstract topics, such as solar-system formation, come first, and pupils have difficulty relating to them. Some middle-school teachers were trained for the grammar level and do not have the proper skills to confront science. Teachers usually realize that they need help, but workshops for them are scarce.

In high school, stellar properties are described; a few high schools offer cosmography lectures. At this level, teachers have a college education, so that the quality of education is usually better than for the earlier grades. Some very good texts are available.

Undergraduate physics students at the national university can choose from five non-compulsory astronomy courses, but very few courses are offered elsewhere at this level. Two institutions give graduate courses in astronomy: the Instituto Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica in Puebla and the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in the capital. Graduate courses follow patterns similar to those in the United States. All teachers are well-trained, most of them abroad, and the curricula are periodically revised. All students have scholarships. But only half the students who begin college conclude their studies, and only 2 percent follow graduate courses.

A great effort has to be made in Mexico to improve basic education. Better-trained teachers, better curricula, and better working conditions are needed. Until a few years ago it was compulsory for parents to send their children only to grammar school. Two years ago, after nafta was signed, middle school turned obligatory.

We hope the present government will modify the curriculum of grammar and middle school to include subjects that are fundamental and interesting for students. For elementary school it would be wise to try to use astronomy to stimulate students and have them learn how to educate themselves in science. Pupils should be taught such habits as concluding projects. Teachers should try to capture students passion for knowledge at an early age.

Any effort to improve education has a wide impact, but it is necessary to carry out many aspects of reform simultaneously in order to improve education on a long-term basis.

JULIETA FIERRO is in charge of astronomy popularization efforts at the Instituto de Astronomía of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Mexico City. Her email address is julieta@astroscu.unam.mx.

illustration captions

B-I-N-G-O!

Last summer, visitors to the Palace of Fine Arts in Mexico City could play an astronomical lottery game. Players had to decipher the clues that a caller gave in rhyme. It was one of several astronomy events organized by Universum, a science center. Photo courtesy of Julieta Fierro.

How do other worlds smell? For the aroma of Io, Triton, or a comet, visitors to the Palace of Fine Arts in Mexico City could lift up one of several lids. It was one of several astronomy demonstrations exhibited in the palace by Universum, a science center. Photo courtesy of Julieta Fierro.