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Journal of the Amateur Astronomers Association of New York June 2012 Venus: Past, Present and Future
By Sandra Wayne
magine a world covered in a perpetual fog of sulfuric acid rain, where the average temperature is 457°C (855°F). It would be safe to call this a harsh environment. This world is Venus, its surface speckled with hundreds of volcanoes, mountains and wide lava plains, its ambient temperature able to melt iron and lead. The "sister planet" to our Earth, it is similar in size, mass, and density - but that is where all similarities end. How did such a hostile world acquire a name that has for centuries been associated with beauty and love? Histor y does not record when the planet was first observed, but it does tell us that ancient civilizations were gazing up at the heavens and observing this bright object - so bright that when the Sun was above the horizon, it could be seen with the naked eye. The Babylonian "Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa" refers to the record of astronomical observations of the planet as preserved in numerous cuneiform tablets dating from the first millennium BCE. Mayan astronomers in 650 A.D. devel oped a calendar based on their detailed observations. Even the ancient Greek poet, Homer, noted that Venus "was the most beautiful star in the sky." At one time the ancient Greeks believed that the y were viewing two distinct stars, because Venus is nearer to the Sun than the Earth. When the Sun sets, Venus is in the western sky and when the Sun rises, Venus is in the eastern sky. In time, the bright planet earned its name in honor of beaut y and love, as it shone brighter than all of the five planets that were known to the ancient stargazers. For centuries, Venus has been the subject of study for astronomers. In the 17th century, a young English astronomer named Jeremiah Horrocks predicted and observed the Venus transit of 1639. In the 18th century, the Age of the Enlightenment prepared astronomers from Britain, Germany, France, Austria, The Netherlands, Sweden, Poland, Denmark, Italy and Spain to observe the transit on June 6, 1761 and again in 1769. Andrea Wulf's new book "Chasing Venus: The Race to Measure the Heavens," (Alfred A. Knopf, 2012, $26.95), recounts the extraordinary expeditions that set off to observe these transits. Overcoming enormous obstacles to make their
Venus: Past, Present and Future continues on page 4 Volume 61 Number 6 ISSN 0146-7662

EYEPIECE
By Alan Rude

Dark Matter Transiting Pulsars The major part of the universe consists of nonluminous and non-baryonic energy and matter. It cannot be detected except by its gravitational affect. This is true for dark energy (which is an entire discussion itself) and dark matter. It is estimated that 70 percent of the universe is dark energy and 25 percent is dark matter. The remaining five percent is ordinary baryonic, luminous matter/energy which is constructed of the particles we have identified in the Standard Model of Particle physics. Put another wa y, dark matter appears to have five times the universal mass as normal (baryonic) matter We don't know what constitutes dark matter. We do know that it does not interact with ordinary matter or energy, that it must be "cold." Particles of dark matter should be neutral (or it would not be dark); stable (or it would deca y into something else); and slow m oving ("cold"). Theories have been devel oped t o explain dark matter to include dark stars and black holes and neutrinos. All theories to date are deficient in one wa y or another. There do not seem to be sufficient dark stars/black holes, (even though there are lots of them) to make up the mass of dark matter. Neutrinos have a ver y small mass and are difficult to detect but they are rapidly moving i.e. "hot" instead of "cold." It appears that a particle or particles outside the Standard Model could be the building blocks of dark matter. Currently, the leading candidates are particles based on super symmetry. The problem here is that no such particles (photinos, selectrons, squarks, axions, WIMPs ) have yet been observed. The hope is that the CERN Hadron Super -Collider can produce one or more of these.
Dark Matter Transiting Pulsars continues on page 6

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________________________ Rik Davis, a Longtime Bulwark of the Club, Is Dead at 67 By Dan Harrison Richard H. (Rik) Davis, whose roles as urban observing chair, vice president and member of the board of directors made him a bulwark of the Amateur Astronomers Association for more than two decades, died May 26 at Beth Israel Hospital. He was 67. Davis' career, photography, combined with his from childhood fascination with astronomy (he assembled his own scope as a kid), produced many brilliant astrophotographs. A
Rik Davis continues on page 2

2004 Venus Transit From Carl Schurz Park (Rik Davis, 2004)


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Rik Davis continued from page 1

June 2012

number of these graced Enjoy the Stars, the club's annual brochure, which he co-produced. But he will probabl y be best remembered by his legion of admirers as someone who was always willing to take extra time to help at observing sessions and star p arties, and in general to educate people who wanted to learn more about astronomy. He did this at many star parties, Carl Schur z Park, solar observing in Central Park, High Line observing and other venues. Outgoing AAA president Richard Rosenberg recalls "While Rik's photographic talent was awesome, he was a modest man. If a sudden observing session came up and someone was needed to represent the club, Rik was there. If someone expressed an interest in the AAA, he always had a copy of Enjoy the Stars to hand out. If we had to go to the supermarket to get soda for our a nnual meeting, there was Rik." Apart from astronomy and a successful career in fashion and design photography, Davis will be recalled for his superb nature photographs, many of which were taken in Central Park, and his years-long documentation of the life, times and family of Pale Male, a red-tailed hawk who nested on a 12th story cornice of an apartment building at 927 Fifth Avenue. Among the cutting-edge innovations in photography that Davis became immersed in is digiscoping. A hot topic in the birding world, it's a method of photographing birds using a digital camera attached to a spotting scope, telescope or binoculars. Usi ng a digiscope, a photographer can achieve dramatic close-ups that would otherwise be impossible. Davis used this and other knowledge to teach a course in bird photography. "One of his favorite astronomical objects to view and photograph was the Moon," notes longtime AAA board member Bruce Kamiat, who worked closel y with Davis at the AAA's Carl Schurz Park observing sessions. "He also was very into comets. He took many spectacular photos of Hyakutake and Hale-Bopp. He took fantastic photos of wildlife in Central Park. Everyone knows his shots of Pale Male and the other red-tailed hawks, but he also photographed robins, herons, egrets, owls and every other kin d of bird. He took many photos of the park's mammals, including wonderful shots of raccoons. He even photographed insects and slugs. His shots of mating slugs are mind-blowing. And he loved to photograph flowers." Richard Hansen Davis was born in Chicago and at an early age opened his first studio there, shooting fashion for Marshall Field and Carson Pirie Scott. As the result of an Army stint in West Germany, he decided to stay in Europe. He lived in Londo n, but was told Milan was where it was happening in fashion. Davis so fell in love with Italy that he set up a studio in Milan, where he concentrated on advertising photography and still life. Davis became friends with Ugo Mulas, known for his photographs of New York artists. Encouraged by Mulas, Rik began photographing performing artists at work, including Rudolf Nureyev during a performance at La Scala, as well as opera stars on and off stage. While in Milan, he also worked in fabric and furniture design. Several years later, after deciding to pursue his work in this country, Davis established a studio in Manhattan. He shot for such leading companies as Cinzano, Estee Lauder, Faberge, Glaxo, Givenchy, Halston, Royal Doulton, Royal Worcest er, Sulka, Tiffany, Waterford and Wedgwood. His photographs appeared in many publications, including American Photo, Beauty Digest, Birder's World, Bridal Guide, Elle DИcor, Fortune, Gourmet, Modern Bride, New York, Southern Accents, The New York Times, Vanity Fair, Vogue and Wild Bird, as well as European publications. Davis' work received awards from the Art Directors Club of New York and the Art Directors Club of Milan. His work wa s exhibited in several galleries and is found in private collections in the United States, Canada and Europe. Years ago, frequent trips to Alberta and Nova Scotia, and to central Virginia, allowed Davis to explore nature photography and his personal vision. Using large-format cameras and other photo-optical devices, he began shooting barns, wildlife, landscapes, seascapes and what he called "country still lifes." At his death, Davis was working on a book of photographs on how birds have adapted to urban environments. Newl y elect ed AAA president Marcelo Cabrera remembers that "The first contact I ever had with the AAA was through Rik. He was doing solar observing on a Saturday morning and after showing me the Sun, he gave me a copy of the AAA brochure." Davis is survived by his wife of 43 years, the former Anna Mae Barnes; a sister, Marilyn Blacksmith; and a cousin, to whom he was extremely close, Jane Trask Smith.

R I K
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June 2012

Remembering Rik Davis
Michael O'Gara May 29, 2012 Lynn Darsh Rik Davis was our sweet-natured friend, an indefatigable observer and trusted tour guide to the cosmos. As the chair of Urban Observing, Rik organized innumerable star parties and enthusiastically recruited us to turn out. His calm presence, helpfulness and willingness to share his expertise at monthl y observing sessions at Carl Schurz Park for nighttime and Central Park for solar, and at star parties from the Rose Center to the Sheep Meadow and on down to the High Line, made him a bel oved, well-known and much appreciated amateur. He carried his many telescopes using a backpack on public transportation for more than 20 years. I have happy memories of shared star parties and coffee-shop cheese omelets afterwards. Rik was fascinated by astronomy since childhood, and he would have been a professional but for the mathematics. He became a photographer instead, a specialist in highly reflecti ve surfaces such as glass and porcelain, and a superb astrophotographer. His images of comets Hyakutake and Hale-Bopp, sunsets, the lunar highlands and Venus' transit of the Sun, among many others, graced Enjoy the Stars for years. Rik had been a fashion photographer in Milan and became a nature photographer and birder in Manhattan. His photograph of New York's cel ebrated red-tailed hawks appeared in The New York Times. He had a great sense of humor, even photographically, and he loved showing his wildlife photographs from Central Park. How can we ever forget the nighttime picture of slug sex? Rik was also interested also in American history and proud of an ancestor whose home was a st op on the Underground Railroad. Rik was alwa ys ready t o help the AAA and his friends. At the annual meeting last month, just as we had for more than 20 years, we smiled and chatted, talking about the next time we'd be out observing. Rik kept living his life, so rich with interests and friends and family and skills, right up until his untimely passing. I remember him with enormous affection and respect, and with gratitude for his friendship. Lynn Darsh was AAA president from 1992 to 2002
At his favorite bench in Central Park

Rik would always laugh. He would often start the beginning of a sentence: .."Oh...ha ha ha...Did you hear about..." or at the end, he would say "Yeah.. ha ha ha..". I don't remember when I first met Rik. Maybe it was at Carl Schurz Park observing. Maybe it was at a meeting of the AAA. What I do remember is that Rik was genuinely a nice person. And he really enjoyed bringing astronomy to the public. He was an accomplished professional photographer, spoke Italian from his days in Milan, loved telling stories about La Scala, and was alwa ys t o be counted on when we needed telescopes for observing sessions all over the city. Rik was vice president at AAA when Lynn Darsh was president, and continued when I became president. He was always a pleasure to work with. We'd get together annually at his studio to produce "Enjoy the Stars," and he'd always have something interesting to show me on his computer. Several times a year, we'd have dinner at my apartment, then head up to Fahnestock Park for observing. The shot I took of Comet Hyakutake used Rik's homemade tracking platform (see photograph below). I remember telling him that a lady named Marie Wynn had asked me to look at some hawks on Fifth Avenue, and how that had become a summer -long odyssey for me. When Rik came by the Central Park model boat pond to take a look, he essentially never left. Rik established daily observing sessions of those hawks, taking pictures that were published in The New York Times and elsewhere. At the AAA annual meeting last month, I asked Rik if he'd like to come t o Edward R. Murrow High School with me for solar observing, and of course the answer was: "Sure, ha ha ha.. Just tell me when". We got clouded out, but quickly rescheduled. I was about t o call Rik with the new date when I heard of his passing. I will miss this man very much. Our city will miss him, too. He was a great ambassador for what's possible in New York. So today, I'll go out to the model boat pond, and show people red-tailed hawks, I'll bring my solar filter and show them some sunspots. When I go to the High Line, I'll show various objects in the sky to surprised viewers. That's what Rik would be doing. I don't think I have the heart to laugh like Rik. Not today. Michael O'Gara was AAA president from 2002 to 2006
Comet Hyakutake as photographed by Michael O'Gara , March 27, 1996, with his Mi nolta with 50 mm l ens, guided on the comet's head for approximatel y 1 minut e, using Kodak 800 film.

At his scope observing the stars

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June 2012

WHAT'S UP IN THE SKY
AAA Observer's Guide for June 2012 By Richard Rosenberg

Venus: Past, Present and Future (continued from page 1)

June's Evening Planets: The biggest event of June is the
rare transit of Venus across the face of the Sun. Details are described in our page 1 article. This leaves the evening sky to Mercury, Mars and Saturn. Mercury, setting in the northwest, becomes easy to spot after the middle of June. Mars is fading but still bright in Leo. Saturn is in Virgo, the following zodiac constellation. June's Evening Stars: The Big Dipper, nearly overhead, is easiest to see this time of year. Follow the arc formed by i ts handle to the brilliant star Arcturus in the constellation BoЖtes, then continue to spot Spica in Virgo (close to Saturn). As the sky darkens locate the Summer Triangle rising in the east. Near the southern horizon, see if you can spot Scorpius. June's Morning Planets: Jupiter moved into the morning sky last month, and is now being followed by a rapidly-movi ng Venus. The two planets are closest on June 18th, only two degrees apart, and will remain close together for some time. They are joined by the star Aldebaran. June's Morning Stars: The Summer Triangle (Lyra, Cygnus and Aquila), overhead last month, has moved slightly to t he west. Further west is Hercules. Most of the sky now belongs to the constellations of autumn, including Pegasus, Andromeda and Perseus as well as fainter Capricornus and Aquarius.

June's "Skylights"
June 1 June 4 June 5 June June June June June June June June June June 7 11 15 17 18 19 20 21 25 26 Spica is 1.5° and Saturn 7° north of the Moon Full Moon at 7:12 a.m. (EDT) Transit of Venus (see aaa.org/transitofvenus2012) Neptune is stationary, beginning retrograde motion Jupiter is 5° south of the Pleiades star cluster Last Quarter Moon at 6:41 a.m. (EDT) Venus is 4° north of Aldebaran Jupiter is 1.1° south of the Moon Venus is 2° south of the Moon New Moon at 11:02 a.m. (EDT) Summer begins at 7:09 p.m. (EDT) Mercury is 5° south of Pollux, 6° north of the Moon Mars is 6° north of the Moon Saturn stationary, resuming direct motion First Quarter Moon at 11:30 p.m. (EDT) Spica 1.4° north of the Moon Saturn 6° north of the Moon Pluto is at opposition

observations, these astronomers were pioneers shaping humanity's quest to understand the universe. The first spacecraft to transmit information from another planet was launched in 1962. NASA's Mariner -2 data revealed the extreme surface temperatures during its close fl y-by. Four years later, Venera-3, one of a series of Russian probes, crash landed on Venus to become the first manmade object to impact another planet's surface. The data probe syst ems failed and the surface remained a myster y. Russia tried again in 1970, this time crash landing Venera-7 and transmitting 23 minutes of temperature data. There are many challenges in navigating a small craft millions of miles away from Earth, but again, in 1975, a Russian Venera-9 orbiter became the first spacecraft to orbit Venus, while its lander was the first to return images from the surface of another planet. Time passes, and other tempting planetary targets are pursued until the 2010 launch of Japan's Atkatsuki (Planet -C). This spacecraft was developed to study atmospheric conditions but failed to insert into orbit successfully. The scientists at the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are working to improve the propulsion system and thrusters, preparing for a second attempt sometime between 2015 and 2017. Future fly-bys en route to other destinations include the BepiCol ombo mission to Mercury, and NASA's Solar Probe + mission to probe the outer corona of the Sun. NASA is also preparing the Venus In-Situ Explorer (VISE), to be launched in 2013. It will land and perform experiments on the surface of Venus, including taking a core sample and measuring its composition. ESA has proposed the Venus Entry Probe t o be launched around the same time. The Russian Federal Space Agency, Roscosmos, continues its series of missions with the 2016 launch of the Venera-D spacecraft. Its prime purpose is to map Venus's surface using more powerful radar than Magellan. The mission would also include a lander capable of surviving for a long duration on the surface. As space programs continue to develop and refine technology, we are bound to learn even more about the harsh, yet intriguing world of Venus, our still illusive beaut y.

June 27 June 29

For additio nal information visit: www.aaa.org/mo nth1206

ATTENTION ALL AAA MEMBERS
JOIN US TO OBSERVE THE VENUS TRANSIT JUNE 5 4 p.m. - 10:30 p.m. Riverside Park South Pier 1 and The High Line aaa.org/transitofvenus2012
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1882 Venus Transit US Naval Observatory Team


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June 2012

A Message from AAA President Marcelo Cabrera
Hello Me mbers: It is with great pleasure that I write to you for the first time as president. Many thanks to my fellow board me mbers for entrusting me with the leadership of the association for the coming year and especially to Rich Rosenberg for all his many years of dedicated service as president and for leading the club in the path of growth. It is also sad to announce that long time board member and for mer vice president Rik Davis passed away last month. We will miss you, Rik. June is charged with excitement, as we have the last opportunity in our lifetimes to witness the transit of Venus on June 5. We will have a strong presence in Riverside Park at 70th St and at the High Line, make sure you visit our website for more details and bring your friends and neighbors to our observing locations. We also have our Spring/Summer astronomy classes starting in June and we resume our dark sky observing sessions in North-South Lake. Check our website for more details. We now accept membership payments and donations online and we have new logo merchandise available online. Sincerely, Contacting AAA Marcelo Cabrera President, AAA president@aaa.org
Membership: members@aaa.org Eyepiece: editor@aaa.org General Club Matters and Observing: president@aaa.org

Telephone: 212-535-2922

Website: www.aaa.org


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Dark Matter Transiting Pulsars (continued from page 1)

June 2012

Enter Pulsars. These are highly magnetized, rotating neutron stars that emit beams of electromagnetic radiation. The radiation can only be observed when the beam is pointed directly at us and is responsible for the appearance of pulsed radiation. Pulsars have a very precise interval between pulses, ranging from roughly milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. They are the most perfect, stable, natural clocks in the known universe. Any deviation of light travel-time (l.t.t) of the pulse of light as it heads toward Earth can be detected. When dark matter crosses the line of sight of a pulsar, the transit should cause a delay in the l.t.t. of photons. Light slows in a gravitational field. Dark matter, because it interacts with gravity (and we believe nothing else) has formed clumps which are more elegantly known as "dark matter substructures." Successful detection of such a substructure using pulsar l.t.t. would be the first detection of dark matter within the Milky Wa y galaxy. Pulsar timing, based upon the slowing of light due to dark matter gravity, offers the prospect of gaining further information in addition to the detection of dark matter substructures themselves. We ma y have insights into dark matter properties such the types: for example, WIMPs (Weakly Interactive Massive Particles-non Baryonic) and MACHOS (Massive Compact Halo Objects-Baryonic). Coming on-stream in 2016 is the Square Kilometer Array, a radio telescope having a collecting area of approximately one square kilometer. It will be 50 times more sensitive than any other radio instrument and will have sensitivit y to significantly improve the measurement of pulsar timing. The nature of dark matter is one of most important mysteries being explored by cosmol ogists toda y. Changes in the light travel time of pulses, although extremely small, can be used to identify dark matter and discern its density profile. Pulsar timing measurement may give us insights into the existence, properties creation and evolution of dark matter. We are just beginning an exciting journey.

Nebula of the Month: Eta Carinae

Eta Carinae is a supermassive star on the brink of destruction. Situated 9,000 light years from Earth in the Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way, the central region of this nebula is bright enough to see with the naked eye (although onl y from equatorial and southern latitudes). It may actually be two supermassive stars, very close to each other, with a mass of about sixty or seventy Suns each. The nebula lies at the center of two expanding globules of dust and gas which were ejected during its 1848 eruption. The dust makes the star look dimmer than it's actual luminosity. If we could put Eta Carinae 93 million miles from Earth (1 AU), it would be about five million times brighter than the Sun.

Photo: NA SA Hubble Space Telescope

What is your favorite nebula?
Ema il e ditor@aaa.org to have your ans wer publis hed!

________________________ Year of the Dragon--SpaceX Visits ISS
By Evan Schneider Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) has successfull y completed the historic mission that made Dragon the first commercial spacecraft in history to visit the International Space Station. Landing safel y in the Pacific Ocean on May 31, Dragon breathed new life into NASA's space program by meeting the rigorous design and safet y speci fications required to dock with the ISS. Previousl y, only four governments - the United States, Russia, Japan and the European Space Agency had achieved this challenging technical feat. Just nine days earlier on May 22, the Falcon 9 launch vehicle lifted off in the early morning from Space Launch Complex-40 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida to begin a demonstration test flight as the first private spacecraft to dock at the orbiting laboratory complex. With this launch, human exploration of the cosmos em barked on a radical new course that will never be the same again. In addition to its 1,000 lb cargo, also on -board were the ashes of "Star Trek" legend James 'Scotty' Doohan , fulfilling his final wish to spend 6

eternity resting in space. "Ever y bit of adrenaline in my body released at that moment," said Elon Musk to reporters at the post launch media briefing about the moment the rocket lifted off the pad. Musk is the founder, CEO and chief designer of SpaceX. "People were really giving it their all. For us, it was like winning the Super Bowl." After conducting a complicated series of rendezvous tests, NASA astronaut Don Pettit of the ISS's Expedition 31 crew successfull y captured the SpaceX Dragon capsule with the station's robotic arm on May 25 at 2:56 PM (EDT), precisel y three days, six hours, 11 minutes and 23 seconds after the mission's launch. The station was 251 miles over northwest Australia at the time. NASA is investing in SpaceX, as well as four other companies, to fl y cargo and eventually astronauts to the station following the retirement of the space shuttles last summer. The company behind the venture SpaceX will now collect the remaining payments on the $396 million contract it has with NASA and then enter into a $1.6 billion agreement for 11 more flights to the ISS. The first step in the commercialization of space to non governmental firms, SpaceX is hoping one day to deliver up to seven passengers to the ISS and other destinations in lowEarth orbit.

SpaceX Dragon docked at the ISS Harmony module (Photo: Ken Kr emer)


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June 2012

WHAT IF??? A

Antimatter: The Key to Space Travel
travel from an extremely difficult and dangerous endeavor to a routine commuter flight. How much fuel do we need? That depends on the mass of the spacecraft. Increased mass requires greater amounts of antimatter fuel. But with antimatter's efficiency, a spacecraft weighing several thousand kilograms would require only a few grams of antimatter fuel to travel interplanetary distances. If the craft can achieve thrust for hours or days, its environment can support gravity-based humans. Floating around in zero gravity may seem like fun, but ask any astronaut and zero g becomes unpleasant at mealtime or bio-breaks. If the craft accelerates at a constant one gravity pace (9.8 meters/second/second), it could breeze through the solar system while passengers experienced the equivalent of Earth's gravity. When the craft gets halfway to its destination, it would turn around and slow down at the same deceleration rate, still providing Earth gravity and arriving at its space destination at zero velocity, ready to orbit, dock or land. This is the great advantage of finally having enough energy to make space travel comfortable. How long would our commuter trips take? A trip from Earth to Mars with 1 gravity acceleration could take as little as 1.17 days or as much as 3.7 days if Earth and Mars are on opposite sides of the Sun. That is about as long as a Caribbean cruise to an island destination and could be just as much fun. Science minded travelers could enjoy the Venus-Sun transit from many different vantage points in the solar system and not wait decades for the experience. When space travel is a commuter or vacation experience, we will have truly become a space-based species. Science and exploration would also advance by leaps and bounds, sending unmanned probes to the far corners of the solar sys tem, Kuiper belt, Oort cloud and beyond in less time than ever imagined. We will also need antimatter -powered spacecraft for mining resources and for trade vessels as we harness the vast mineral resources of the solar system to support future colonization. Unfortunately, there is a negative impact to this new power source. Antimatter would make the easiest and most effective weapons of mass destruction. It could redefine terrorism. Only a few grams of the volatile substance could destroy a city (or space colony). To release the energy, one only needs to turn off the magnetic containment field. This has the potential to be the most dangerous weapon ever built, so let's keep it out of the wrong hands. I suppose we have to take risks if we want the rewards. Let's hope Mankind will be mature enough to use this for good. I can't wait to book my vacation cruise to Venus.
Richard Brounstein's m onthly colum n, "WHAT I F," explores what today seem s im probable or impossible. Stay tuned for m ore fascinating concepts.

s a civilization advances, its need for energy increases.

Civilization made its first technological leap when it harnessed energy from fire, allowing humans to construct metal tools and control their environment. In the 19th century, Mankind advanced again when the power of coal was discovered. No longer using beasts of burden to do work, new machines harvested crops, mined materials, and moved people across the globe. Finally, through the exploitation of oil, machines were developed to fly around the Earth and beyond our atmosphere. The 21st century promises the production of cleaner energy sources such as photovoltaic solar panels, solar heating, wind energy, clean coal, natural gas, hydrogen fuel cells and fuels from biotechnology. We are headed in the right direction. But while these sources will make energy supplies more sustainable, they do not provide increased efficiency. Nuclear fission, Mankind's most recent energy leap, provides an increased efficiency thousands of times greater than fossil fuel power plants. That still falls short if we want to become a space -based civilization. Our next great leap must be to harness antimatter. Antimatter consists of subatomic particles just like normal matter, but with an opposite electric charge. Each subatomic particle in nature has an anti-particle. An electron with a negative electric charge has a corresponding antiparticle called a positron. The positron has a positive electric charge. A proton has its opposite particle called an antiproton. Energy is emitted when normal particles encounter their antiparticles. They annihilate each other, releasing enormous amounts of energy with 100% efficiency. Over one million times more efficient than nuclear fission, this can provide a game changing permanent increase of power for civilizations, allowing Mankind to move more rapidly into space. Finding antimatter is not easy. There are no deposits in Earth's crust. We should be grateful for this since antimatter ore would explode the moment it came into contact with normal matter. Once antimatter is found or produced, it does not need to be processed into an explosive substance. It onl y needs to come into contact with any normal matter to release its energy. The only way to safely contain antimatter is in a magnetic energy field. Can we manufacture antimatter? Even the Large Hadron Collider can only produce a few hundred atoms at a time. It would take millions of years to produce a few kilograms. But one thing we know about science it is that the future always holds change. Someday, humans may discover how t