Документ взят из кэша поисковой машины. Адрес оригинального документа : http://www.aaa.org/EyepieceFiles/aaa/2011_08_August_Eyepiece.pdf Дата изменения: Sun Feb 22 20:31:03 2015 Дата индексирования: Sun Apr 10 03:41:52 2016 Кодировка: ISO8859-5 Поисковые слова: universe

Journal of the Amateur Astrono mers Association of New York August 2011 Volume 59 Number 8 ISSN 0146-7662

EYEPIECE
Zone 2 is a zone of moderate ambient lighting. Vision is adapted to moderate light levels. Lighting may typically be used for safety and convenience, but isnt necessarily unifor m or continuous. After curfew, lighting may be extinguished or reduced as activity levels decline. Zone 3 has moderately high a mbient lighting. Ther e would be areas of activity where vision is adapted to moderately high light levels. Lighting is generally desired for safety, security and/or convenience a nd is often unifor m and/or continuous. Lighting ma y be extinguished or reduced in most areas as activity declines. Zone 4 has high a mbient lighting. Ther e would be areas of activity wher e vision is adapted to high light levels. Lighting is generally consider ed necessary for safety, security and/or convenience and is mostly unifor m and/ or continuous. After curfew, lighting may be extinguished or reduced in some areas as activity levels decline. The second innovation limits the a mount of light used

2 Groups Release Much-Awaited Model Lighting Ordinance
By Dan Harrison
After a gestation period of seven years, the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) and the Illuminating Engineer ing Society (IES) released their muchanticipated Model Lighting Ordina nce (MLO) June 15. The groups ter med the MLO "a valuable guide for environmentally r esponsible outdoor lighting in North America" and said it would " encourage broad adoption of comprehensive outdoor lighting ordina nces without devoting extensive staff time and resources to their development." The MLO "is designed to help municipalities develop outdoor lighting standards that reduce glare, light trespass, and skyglow." The MLO offers what the groups call three innovations to outdoor-lighting regulation. The first is five lighting zones to classify la nd use, with appropriate lighting levels for each, enabling the MLO to be customized. They range from a zone for pristine natural environments, with limited outdoor lighting, to one for limited application in areas of extensive development in large cities. Zone 0 would have no ambient lighting because it contains areas wher e the environment will be seriously affected by lighting. Impacts would include disturbing flora and fauna and/or detracting from huma n enjoyment of the envir onment. In this zone, human activity is subordinate in importance to nature. Vision is adapted to total darkness, and people expect to see little or no lighting. When not needed, lighting would be extinguished. Zone 1 would have low ambient lighting. The zone has areas wher e lighting might affect flora and fauna or disturb the areas character. Vision is adapted to low light levels. Lighting may be for safety and convenience but isnt necessarily uniform or continuous. Most lighting would be extinguished or reduced as activity declines.

Model Lighting continued on page 11

Legislators Inert on Light Bills
By Dan Harrison
The New York State Legislature adjourned June 25 without acting on identical light-pollution bills introduced by Nassau Republica n State Senator Carl L. Marcellino and Manhattan Democratic Assemblywoman Linda B. Rosenthal. The bills wer e stuck in committee. For a dozen years, light-pollution legislation has failed to become la w. It usually passed the Assembly but failed Legislators continued on page 3


What's Up
The Sky in August 2011 By Richard Rosenberg
August's Evening Sky. Mercury is too near the Sun to be seen. Late in the month, look for it in the mor ning sky. Saturn is getting low: At midmonth it will set at 10 p. m. Still domina nt are the Summer Triangle and the Milky Way. Appearing in the east are the faint constellations of autumn, brightened somewhat by Pegasus and Andromeda. August's Morning Sky. Jupiter in Aries rises around midnight, and Mars in Gemini follows about three hours later. Late in the month, Mercury can be seen befor e sunrise, but Venus is too close to the Sun to be seen. All the bright winter stars in Auriga, Taurus, Orion, Gemini, Canis Minor and Canis Major can be seen. Two bright asteroids, Vesta and Cer es, are currently up, and its possible to spot both this month with a suitable scope and sky. Vesta usually appears as the brighter of the two because of its relative closeness to Earth and inherent brightness. On August 6, Vesta is at opposition: Sun, Earth and Vesta lie in a straight line. Look for it on that date 4А from the fourth-ma gnitude star 24 Capricorni. Ceres is one constellation east, in Aquarius. In August, it brightens from magnitude 8.4 to 7.8. At opposition September 16, its magnitude will be 7.6. On that date, look for it only half a degr ee to the right of the star 2 Ceti, the asteroid having moved into Cetus. The Dawn spacecraft went into orbit around Vesta on July 16, and begins its science mission this month. After about a year, Dawn will hea d for Ceres and view it beginning in February 2015 August 1 Aster oid Cer es is stationary, and begins moving from east-to-west relative to the stars. August 3 The crescent Moon is about 8А below Saturn. August 4 The Moon is 3А below Spica. August 6 First Quarter Moon at 7:08 a. m.; Asteroid Vesta is at opposition. At magnitude 5.6, it may be seen with the na ked eye from a dark site. August 7 This mor ning, Mars is less than 1А south of cluster M35. August 10 The gibbous Moon will occult (cover) the
2

bright (ma gnitude 2.9) star Pi Sagittari from 10:14 to 11:22 p. m. August 12-13 The Perseid meteor shower peaks tonight, but a full Moon will overpower most meteors. August 13 Full Moon at 2:57 p. m. August 16 Venus in superior conjunction, entering the evening sky; Mercury in inferior conjunction, entering the morning sky, August 19 This morning Mars is 1НА south of thirdma gnitude Epsilon Geminorum. August 21 Last-quarter Moon at 5:54 p.m. August 22 The Pleiades are about 3А above the Moon this morning; Neptune is at opposition, rising at sunset and setting at sunrise. August 25 Mars is 3МА left of the Moon this morning. August 27 Mercury, now in the morning sky, is 8А lower left of the Moon. August 28 New Moon at 11:04 p. m. August 30 Jupiter stationary, begins r etrograde motion. August 31 Back in the evening sky, Saturn is upper right of the Moon and Spica is upper left of the Moon. For more infor mation on the Inter net, go to: http:// w.aaa.org/month1108.

Jupiter and Saturn in July
By Joseph A. Fedrick
Jupiter was still an early morning object as of early July but was beginning to rise early enough so that by July 7 it was high above the tree line to my east by 5 a. m. Its appearance in the telescope was radically changed from last year. The South Equatorial Belt (SEB) had been fully revived so Jupiter displayed two dark brownish equatorial belts in my 60mm f/15 achromatic refractor at 100x. The Great Red Spot (GRS) was easy to spot last year even with only 60mm of aperture due to its dark reddish color and sharp contrast with the nearly invisible SEB. This year the GRS has faded so that on July 7, it was, at best, barely detectable at the threshold of r esolution with my 60mm scope at 100x. The SEB was partially split into two gray-brown belts, while the North Equatorial Belt wasnt split, was slightly narrower and had a slightly darker gray-orange-br own coloration. Paler belts of a grayish coloration wer e detectable in the higher latitudes of Jupiter. Separating the grayish belts wer e paler gray or ivory white zones. Jupiter and Saturn continued on page 10


A Message from AAA President Richard Rosenberg
Hello members: Lecture chair David Kraft is great at retaining noted spea kers for our lecture series. This year hes topped himself. To lead off the 2011-12 series October 21, our speaker will be Freema n Dyson of the Institute for Advanced Study. Other speakers include Elena Aprile of Columbia University, Micha el Shara of the AMNH, Jerry Bonnell of NASA and Astronomy Picture of the Day, Glennys Farrar of NYU and AlexWolszczan of Penn State. Two slots rema in to be filled. Further details will be in next months Eyepiece. Well also ha ve news of our autumn class next month. Member Stan Hondas photos of Manhattanhenge can be viewed in the galler y of our website, www.aaa.org. I was amused by the view of several people photographing the setting Sun with their cell phones. On August 5-7, the Escape 2 New Yor k Music Festival will occur in Southa mpton, N. Y. ( www. escape2ny.com). The festival seeks an astronomy-r elated perfor mance or demonstration, which could be telescopic viewing. Camp Simcha near Port Jervis is a camp for youngster s with cancer or other hematologic illnesses. This year weve been invited to bring telescopes to join them Sunday evening, August 7. If youd like to participate, call me. More observing sites and dates, some old, some new: September 3, October 1, November 5: Gateway Park, near Gil Hodges Bridge, Queens; Saturday, October 22: Urban Starfest at the Central Park Sheep Mea dow (rain date October 23). Jupiter will be near opposition; November 12: Fort Greene Park, Brooklyn; December 3: Avenue U Salt Marsh, Marine Park, Brooklyn. Info: www.aaa.org. If your e not on line but want to attend a session, call me. If you ima ge celestial objects and feed the output into a monitor for simultaneous viewing by several people, let me know. Wed like to set it up for Starfest and other obser ving sessions. Rich Rosenberg, president@aaa.org, (718) 522-5014 Legislators continued from page 1 to emer ge from Senate committee. The one time it emerged from both cha mbers, it was vetoed by Gov. Geor ge E. Pataki. This year's bills, like earlier ones, would have prohibited state agencies and public corporations from installing new or replacement per manent outdoor lighting unless such fixtures with output greater than 1,800 lumens are fully shielded. Ther e wer e several exceptions. Marcellino and Rosenthal aides agreed the main stumbling block was perceived cost. "In an age of austerity, the cost to the state and loca lities of compliance...was viewed as prohibitive," said Debbie Peck-Kelleher, Marcellinos investigation committee dir ector. Lauren Schuster, Rosenthals chief of staff, said the state doesnt want to strap localities with added costs. "I dont understand why people dont take this mor e seriously. State and local governments are gunshy since they perceive the upfront costs as high. Its hard to convince them of longter m cost savings." In an attempt to get something passed, Marcellino and Rosentha l introduced bills drawn from sections of the main bill. But these barely fared better than the primary legislation. The only success was a bill that will requir e the environmental conservation commissioner, in consultation with the ener gy research and development authority, to develop lighting efficiency standards. Bills that didnt make it included one that would ha ve directed the secretary of state to prepare and distribute to municipalities a model compr ehensive lighting or dinance. Another would have enunciated state policy on Legislators continued on page 10
3


World Science Festival Leads Us Through the Dark Universe
By Evan Schneider
Look up at the night sky. Marvel at the cosmos. Squint to see that soft fuzzy ima ge of the Andromeda Galaxy, a mer e 2.2 million light-years away. Gaze at a brilliant star cluster or the constant glow of the stellar disk of the Milky Way, 100,000 light-years in dia meter. So ma ny bright lights to explor e. Yet with all that light and all those objects, 96% of the universe is dark. On June 2, seven World Science Festival panelists discussed "The Dark Side of the Universe." Dr. Brian Greene, superstring theorist, and professor of physics and mathematics at Columbia, introduced the program, stating dark energy is causing space to expand. But befor e dark ener gy, 73% of the universe, can be addr essed, we need to acknowledge the pr esence of dark matter, the other 23%. "Where do we find dark matter?" asked panelist Glennys Farrar, professor of physics at NYU. "It all began in 1930 with Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky, when he observed some galaxies wer e spinning so fast that stars should fly away from them--but they did not." In the 1950s, astronomer and physicist Vera Rubin measur ed light from multiple galaxies and applied the Doppler effect--obser ving the wa velength shift proportional to the speed of the light source relative to the observer. The data allowed her to calculate orbital speeds of stars in differ ent parts of those galaxies. Because stars in outer areas of the galaxies wer e moving as fast as the stars at the center, some unseen mass had to be causing them to move faster than anticipated. This is a dir ect gravitational effect of mass from dark matter. Dr. Katherine Freese, professor of physics at the University of Michigan, provided another key to locating dark matter: lensing, wher e mass bends light, creating multiple ima ges of a single object. These phenomena imply the presence of dark matter, but what if we could develop a detection system? Columbia physics professor Dr. Elena Aprile, founder of the Xenon Dark Matter experiment in Italy, is working on detecting wea k interacting mass particles (WIMPS)
4

one mile under ground, to lessen background noise. The detector waits for ener gy to be released from cosmicwind radiation, exciting the xenon atoms. Its detected b y p h o t o mu l t i p l i e r s ( ht t p : / / w w w . p h y s o r g. c o m/ news/2011-04-dar k-closer-elusive-particle. html). This research may measure and identify dark matter. The relationship of dark matter (an attractive force) and dark ener gy (a repulsive force) may have played a major role at the time of the Big Bang. Dark matter plays a role in the development of accretion disks, pulling in electrons and protons to for m galaxies, while dark energy has been credited with expansion of the universe. The James Webb Space Telescope, designed to study for mation of early stars and galaxies thr ough infrared observations, may provide answers, Freese said. Dark-energy experts then took the spotlight, with Greene stating, "Galaxies rushing away from us should slow down over time." But Dr. Saul Perlmutter, a UCal/ Berkeley physics professor and astrophysicist who cha rts the expansion history of the universe, noted the universe is expanding faster and dark ener gy is pushing it. Perlmutter looked at thousands of ga laxies to find exploding supernova e. By measuring brightness of a supernova from pre- to post-supernova phases, distance and time of explosion can be deter mined. Using this as a gauge, the rate of universal expansion can be calculated. Theoretical cosmologist Dr. Micha el Turner, professor at the Enrico F er mi Institute, explained that dark ener gy is repulsive gravity, pushing the universe apart on a large scale while nor mal gravity pulls matter together on a smaller scale. Turners written perspective, "Dark Energy and the New Cosmology," is at . http:// supernova.lbl. gov/~evlinder/turner.pdf The panel was asked when dark ener gy and dark matter would be fully understood. Answers ranged from 10 to 15 years. Its debatable whether current theories and detection equipment will fuse to provide answers. Perlmutter would like to see Webb telescope data, as it will be positioned 930,000 miles from Earth. At that distance, the early universe should be easier to obser ve.


Dark Matter Arguably the Greatest Problem in Physics
By Alan Rude
Dark matter is arguably the gr eatest problem in physics, astrophysicists on a June 3 panel the World Science Festival agr eed. Panelists discussed efforts to detect this elusive and mysterious matter, which is inferr ed to exist from gravitational effects on visible matter, but is undetectable by electroma gnetic radiation and is non-baryonic--i. e., not for med of atoms. P:resent calculations indicate matter comprises 23% of the mass-energy of the universe. Dr. Glennys Farrar, professor of physics at NYU, discussed the lea ding contender for dark matter, supersymmetry. Supersymmetry, whimsically nicknamed S USY, is a pillar of string theory which posits that for every standard particle (e. g., quarks, photons, neutrinos), ther e are corresponding superpartner (SUSY) particles (photinos, squarks, neutralinos). These differ from standard particles by one-half unit of spin. The neutralino, a wea kly interactive massive particle (WIMP), has been regarded as a top candidate for a dark-matter constituent. . One particularly controversial experiment is known as DAMA, beneath the Italia n mountain of Gran Sasso. DAMA researchers have claimed to detect an annual fluctuation of dark-matter particles as the Earth moves through the dark-matter galactic halo. Subsequent experiments, including the experiment "Xenon 100" organized by panelist Elena Aprile, professor of physics at Columbia, havent been able to corroborate DAMA findings and have detected no WIMPs. However, in a recent development, researchers working on a dark-matter experiment half a mile under ground in a Minnesota mine claim theyve seen seasonally varying blips in electrical pulses that may be the telltale signs of WIMPs. One of the primary missions of the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is detection of SUSY particles, including WIMPs, which would be the ma jor breakthrough in dark-matter research. No doubt because of the promise of the LHC, several panelists were emphatic that the myster y of dark matter will be solved in this decade. Other astrophysicists, unconvinced with results of SUSY/WIMP research, have proposed an alternative in the for m of inter mediate-size black holes. Katherine Freese, professor of physics at the University of Michigan, stated they would ha ve been for med at the beginning of the universe--not later from collapsing supernova e--and ma y have masses ranging from several stellar masses to masses less than Jupiters. Priyamvada Natarajan, professor of astronomy physics at Yale, called black holes too small to be tected at great distances, but too large to evaporate du Hawking radiation, so theyve been able to survive almost the entire life of the universe. Q&A included these (paraphrased) highlights: Q: Is ther e dark matter in other, parallel universes? A: We can only theorize about alternate universes, but certain movements of galactic clusters indicate there might be gravity sources outside our universe, indicating dark matter. Q: Is dark matter affected by gravity? A: Yes, thats how it was detected in the first place. Q: Has the F ermi Ga mma-ray Telescope provided early insights into the nature of dark matter? A: Not yet, but ther es hope. and dee to for

Ferris Helps Sungazers
By Anne Kiefer
As part of the World Science Festival, amateur astronomers gathered on Governors Island June 4 to explore the science of sungazing and listen to a talk on the subject by writer and scientist Dr. Timothy Ferris. Six stations of specially outfitted telescopes wer e set up to study solar weather patterns. Amateurs manning the telescopes explained the two ways one could outfit a Sungazers continued on page 10
5


Review: A Professor, A President and A Meteor
By Dan Harrison
On December 14, 1807, a meteorite fell to the ground in Weston, Conn. Within da ys, a 28-year-old la wyerscientist na med Benja min Sillima n, who had become Yales first professor of chemistry five years earlier, was on the scene. By the end of the month, he published an account of the meteorite in Connecticut Herald. Neither Sillima n nor anyone else knew it, but by scouring the town for data, "he diligently sowed the scene for what scientists know toda y regarding the big ba ng theory, the for mation of Earth, and other planetary bodies," says Cathryn J. Prince in "A Professor, A President, and A Meteor" (Prometheus, $26). "Indeed, the Weston Fall was a turning point for Amer ica n science and for Amer ica. The young nation could now occupy a seat at the table with the gr eat Europea n thinkers." The president in the book's title is Thomas Jefferson, who in late 1807 was in the home str etch of his tenure. Jefferson was devoted to science, but not all sciences. He had little interest in astronomy or geology, believing botany and chemistry could be harnessed for practical use in ways that geology and astronomy could not. "...most scientists...consider ed...meteors and fir eballs unrelated to mor e legitimate astronomical events such as asteroids and comets. It took mor e than two centuries...before scientists concluded that these occurrences are related." To ma ke matters mor e complicated, Sillima ns achievement in proving that meteors had cosmic rather than terrestrial origins, and that they wer ent ejecta from lunar volca noes, beca me enmeshed in the politics of the day, when New England Federalists and southern Republican-Democrats bitterly opposed each other. Silliman bent over backwards to steer clear of politics, Prince writes, especially since ma ny Federalists assailed Jeffersons devotion to science. Sillima n also sought to balance his r eligion with his pursuit of science. "The meteorite truly presented a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity...He understood that an event of this magnitude requir ed careful analysis."
6

More specifically, Sillima n was the first scientist to interview witnesses and personally analyze stones that composed a meteorite. He conducted ma ny experiments to identify the meteorites composition. Nearly spherical chondrules wer e seen as proof that the Weston meteor "hailed fr om the great beyond...Later scientists would deter mine that [it] likely began its journey to Earth some thirty million years after two asteroids collided. The collision produced thousands of rocky bodies, further crowding the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter." Silliman's chemical report snared the public imagination, Prince says. "It was the first step toward thoughtful popularization of science...His endeavor offers rare insight into the state of American science as it stood on the cusp of a new international identity." The report "laid the foundation for the the future study of meteorites. Everything scientists know today about meteor ites--the different types, the various minerals, trace elements, and isotopes contained within--bega n in Sillima ns laboratory." "Throughout his tenure at Yale," Prince notes, "Sillima n never ceased thinking about the immensity of space. He never tired of watching the winking lights of the night sky, regarding stars as the gatekeepers to other planetary systems outside our own." This book is a good read, especially if your e a history buff. Prince puts scientific events into political, social and religious context, in fewer than 200 pages. She also does something relatively few historians have done: shine a spotlight on part of the period between the Revolution and the Civil War, decades which, except for such figures as Andr ew Jackson, Daniel Webster and John Brown, remain generally unmined.

Contacting the AAA
General club matters: president@aaa.org. Membership business, such as dues and change of addr ess: members@aaa.org. Eyepiece: editor@aaa.org. Lectures: lectures@aaa.org. Classes: classes@aaa.org. Seminar: seminar@aaa.org. Observing: president@aaa.org. Please visit us on the web at www.aaa.org.


Briefs: Congressional Budget Cutters Want to Ax Webb
Astronomers are up in arms over proposed congressional budget cuts that would cancel the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The House Appropriations commerce, justice and science subcommittee, which oversees NASA, proposed a 2012 spending bill last month that would ter minate the JWST as part of wider reaching cutbacks that would reset the a gencys budget at pre-2008 levels. "JWST will la y the foundation on which a better understanding of the early universe will be built," Debra Elmegr een, president of the Amer ican Astronomical Society (AAS), said. "It has the potential to transfor m astronomy even more than the Hubble Space Telescope did." In a statement, AAS members ter med the JWST critical to helping astronomers better understand the earliest for mation of stars and planets, and said its operation will shed light on complex mysteries of the universe. The $6.5 billion JWST is an infrared observatory designed to peer farther back into the universes history than ever befor e, exploring deep-space phenomena from distant galaxies to planets and stars. Under the proposal announced July 6, NASA would receive $16.8 billion in funding, $1.6 billion less than last year and $1.9 billion below President Oba mas 2012 request. The subcommittee described the JWST as being plagued by cost overruns and poor management. Its construction has faced budgetary woes and dela ys. A panel investigation last year found the project had overrun its cost by $1.5 billion, and bla med the troubles largely on misma nagement. Most recently, a reva mped budget and technology plan estimated that JWST could launch by 2018. In the wake of the proposed cancellation, NAS A deputy administrator Lori Garver spoke about the value of the JWST: "This is a perfect exa mple of NASA revealing the unknown a nd r eaching for new heights. Well be prepared to lay out a budget that will allow us to launch the JWST in this decade, within the next budget cycle." The draft $16.8 billion figure includes $1.95 billion for the Space Launch System, the hea vy-lift rocket Congress order ed NASA to build for deep-space exploration. The proposed 2012 funding is $150 million mor e than the lifter got for 2011, but some $700 million below the a mount recommended in the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, which beca me law in October. An unmanned NASA probe ma de history 117 million miles fr om Earth July 16 when it arrived at the huge asteroid Vesta, making it the first spacecraft to orbit an object in the solar systems asteroid belt. The Dawn spacecraft enter ed orbit around Vesta after a four -year trip and will spend about a year studying the 330-milewide rock befor e moving on to visit the dwarf planet Ceres in 2015. Vesta, the brightest asteroid in the solar system, is about the size of Arizona. Its in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The earliest black holes seem to be hiding behind thick clouds of dust and gas, a new study finds. Astronomers have long searched for black holes at the center of some of the first known galaxies, with no results. The study has not only pinpointed these objects, its determined theyre closely tied to evolution of their galaxies. As particles speed up, they emit massive ener gy. Galaxies that formed only 1 billion years or so after the Big Bang dont seem to have such outbursts, leading scientists to conclude their black holes wer e smaller. Early black holes wer e hard to locate because they were shrouded in dense dust of their galaxies. Not only did the tea m find early giants, they discover ed the first supermassive black holes wer e closely related to their galaxies. The mass of the black holes, for instance, correlates to the luminosity of the galaxy, and to the mass of the dark matter halo surrounding it. Early black holes wer ent expected to have this connection. A powerful beam of energy has been spotted blasting from the center of a massive black hole as it rips apart and devours a star in a rare sight astronomers believe happens only every 100 million years. Astronomers initially thought it was a powerful burst of ga mma rays from a collapsing star. But when the ener gy was still seen months later, they r ealized something mor e mysterious was going on. That its fading ver y slowly shows this isnt an ordinary ga mma-ray burst. The ga mma-ray flash is in the constellation Draco, at the center of a galaxy nearly 4 billion light-years away. Effects of a ga mma -ray burst typically can be obser ved for only about a day. The highly energetic and long-lasting X-rays and ga mma -rays wer e produced as a star about the size of our Sun was shredded by a black hole 1 million times mor e massive. This a rare event because the black hole hasnt been eating up matter around it like some other active black holes. Continued on page 8
7


Briefs: MESSENGER Begins Unlocking Mercury's Mysteries
Continued from page 7 Astronomers have long suspected that galaxies grow large due to an insatiable appetite for interstellar gas, but a new study suggests they may slowly graze on it. Galaxies in the distant universe continuously ingested their star -making fuel over long periods of time, says the study, which used Spitzer. New evidence shows galaxy growth in which a typical galaxy fed itself through a steady stream of gas, making stars much faster than thought. Astronomers have long wonder ed wher e distant galaxies acquir ed this stellar fuel. The most favor ed theor y was that galaxies gr ew by mer ging with other galaxies, feeding off gas stirred up in the collisions. Scientists surveyed mor e than 70 remote galaxies that existed 1 billion -2 billion years after the Big Bang. Previous studies using ultraviolet-light telescopes found much less star for mation than Spitzer, which sees infrared light. Observations from the orbiting MESSENGER mission to Mercury could help unlock mysteries. Some pictures have revealed huge expanses of volcanic deposits near the north pole. Observations help confir m volcanism has substantially shaped Mercurys crust and surface for much of its history. MESSENGERs X-ray spectrometer detected surprisingly high levels of sulfur at the surface, which could help explain Mercurys origin and volcanism. Obser vations revea l Mercury isnt similar to the Moon or other terrestrial planets. MESSENGER will gauge whether Mercury harbors water ice on its surface. That might seem unlikely, since average surface temps can top 800 degr ees. However, Earth-based radar observations 20 years ago suggested large amounts of ice may lurk in per manently shadowed craters at the poles. Early results from MESSENGER support the idea. Data indicate some polar craters may be so deep their floors are in per manent shadow. Scientists also hope to learn why Mercury is much denser than other rocky planets. Humongous waves of hot plasma on the surface of the Sun appear to be moving as fast as 4.5 million mph. The wa ves are so huge it would take up to 16 Earths, end -to-end, to match them. Its the first evidence the Suns lower atmospher e contains such waves. They have periods of 30-200 seconds and wavelengths of 62,000124,000 miles. Solar waves are produced when a flare or eruption on the surface kicks up hot plasma. Scientists
8

have observed slow-moving waves on the Sun, but fastmoving waves, also pr edicted by theory, ha d gone undetected because previous telescopes couldnt take pictures fast enough to image them. Astronomers have seen about a dozen such wa ves. Theyre believed to be responsible for many fundamenta l, yet enigmatic processes, such as heating the corona to millions of degr ees, accelerating the solar wind, triggering remote eruptions, and delivering energy and infor mation between parts of the atmospher e. Another study of solar waves found waves the size of the U. S. in the corona. They could help explain how energy moves through the Suns atmospher e. The European space telescope CoRoT has discovered 10 previously unknown alien planets, including two Neptune-like objects that circle the sa me star. All are gaseous like Saturn or Jupiter. However, they exhibit a range of masses, densities, orbital characteristics and other properties. Seven are hot Jupiters. Another is smaller than Saturn. While all are gaseous, theyr e diverse. Their densities, for example, span a wide range, from values similar to Saturn, the least dense planet in our solar system, to Mars. One planet orbits a 10-billion-year-old star. Another circles a star just 600 million years old. Two lie on highly elongated orbits, a surprise considering how unstable such paths are thought to be. Scientists have discovered the most brilliant object from the infancy of the cosmos, a galaxy that cha llenges notions of how extramassive black holes evolved. The quasar, the most distant one found, gives off 60 trillion times mor e light than as our Sun. Based on how the quasars light was stretched during its journey by the universes expansion, scientists think it existed only 770 million years after the Big Bang. By analyzing its light, they estimate the quasar was power ed by a black hole 2 billion times the Suns mass. A newfound comet discover ed by a signed to hunt for danger ous asteroids will est pass by Earth in 2013 and should be naked eye when it draws near. (PANSTARRS), discover ed on the night will likely come within 30 million miles February or March 2013. The comet wil telescope demake its closvisible to the C/2011 L4 of June 5- 6, of the Sun in l probably be

Continued on page 9


Briefs: Craft Spots Comet Quarry Before 31 -Month Slumber
Continued from page 8 visible low in the western sky shortly after sunset. Its orbit is close to parabolic, mea ning this ma y be the first time it will ever come close to the Sun, and it may not return. The comet likely began in the Oort Cloud, and was likely flung toward the Sun by a distant passing star. A European spacecraft chasing a distant comet caught sight of its quarry befor e entering a planned 31month slumber in deep space. The Rosetta spacecraft has been chasing comet 67-P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko for mor e tha n seven years. Rosetta took 52 pictures from a distance of 101 million miles. Because of the distance, the comet appears as a single point of light. The spacecraft shut down its instruments and most control systems June 8. The hiber nation will help Rosetta save ener gy on its long cruise to the comet. The probe is so far from the Sun that solar energy is hard to come by. Rosetta will awaken in January 2014, to prepare for its rendezvous with the comet that July. Rosetta will orbit the comet for 18 months, and drop a lander onto the surface. Researchers hope Rosetta can help reconstruct the early histor y of our cosmic neighbor hood. The mission will also look for organic molecules on the surface, to investigate the possibility that a long-ago comet strike could have seeded Earth with the building blocks of life. The comet, 2.4 miles across, orbits the Sun ever y 6.6 years. The Moon blocked part of the Sun in a partial solar eclipse July 1in an event caught on ca mera by a Europea n satellite, even though it was largely invisible to everyone on Earth. The eclipse was only visible from an extr emely r emote patch of the southern Atla ntic just off the coast of Antarctica, south of Africa. The ESA's Proba -2 satellite observed the event using a telescope called Swap. The photos showed the Sun with a small, dark bite missing at the point wher e the Moon blocked its light. The eclipse lasted about 90 minutes, with the Moon blocking only 9.7% of the Sun's surface at the event's pea k. Swap snapped views of the eclipse in extreme ultraviolet and managed to perfor m multiple observation passes as it orbited the Earth. Enceladus conceals a salty ocean beneath its frozen surface, scientists suspect. Using Cassini, scientists discover ed water geysers contain a significant a mount of salt, enough to suggest a subterranea n sea. Only a relatively sma ll fraction of the salty particles escape into the E ring, the outer most of Saturns seven ring groupings, ma de up of particles ejected by Enceladus geyser plumes. Mor e than 99% of ice around the geysers is salt rich. This makes a much stronger case for liquid water. Geysers of Encela dus are fed by at least one r eservoir of water a few hundr ed feet below the surface. Whether its a single large lake or several smaller pools is unknown, but in order for spray to for m, a total water -surface area of several hundr ed square miles must exist. The reservoirs connect to an ocean about 50 miles under ground. A huge galaxy cluster was spawned by a cosmic smash-up of four clusters which lasted 350 million yea rs, a new study suggests. Scientists pieced together the history of galaxy cluster Abell 2744, 3 billion light-years from the Milky Way. Galaxies ma ke up less than 5% of Abell 2744s mass. Another 20% is gas, so hot it shines only in X-rays. The r est is dark matter. It seems the collision separated some hot gas and dark matter so they lie apart from each other, and from the visible galaxies. Abell 2744 combines phenomena that have only been seen singly in other systems. Near the cor e of the cluster is a "bullet," wher e gas of one cluster collided with that of another to create a shock wave. The dark matter apparently passed through the collision unaffected. In another part of the cluster, ther e seem to be galaxies and dark matter, but no hot gas. The gas ma y have been stripped away during the collision. In the outer parts of the cluster, one region contains much dark matter, but no luminous galaxies or hot gas. A separate clump of gas has been ejected, which precedes rather than follows associated dark matter. Earth and the other rocky planets arent ma de from the solar systems original starting mat erial, two new studies reveal. Scientists exa mined solar particles snagged in space by NASAs Genesis probe, whose return capsule crash-landed on Earth in 2004. They show the Suns basic building blocks differ significa ntly from those of Earth, the Moon and other denizens of the inner solar system. Nearly 4.6 billion years ago, results suggest, some process alter ed tiny pieces that eventually coalesced into rocky planets, after the Sun ha d for med. Continued on page 10
9


Briefs continued from page 9 An asteroid the size of a bus zipped by Earth June 27 in a flyby so close it was near er to the planet than some satellites. Asteroid 2011 MD reached its closest point when it crept within 7,500 miles, befor e whipping away like a slingshot. The asteroid was flying over the souther n Atlantic, off Antarctica, at the time of its closest approach. It was discover ed on June 22. There was never any risk of Earth impact. The rock, from 16 to 66 feet wide, would have likely been too small to survive the fier y plunge through the atmospher e. Aster oids this size can be expected to buzz Earth once ever y six years. The Hubble Space Telescope hit a ma jor milestone after 21 years in orbit: one million science obser vations, with the latest being a look at possible signs of water in an exoplanet's atmospher e. The observation occurred July 4 while the observatory was looking at a planet 1,000 light-years away. Although Hubble is best known for its ima ger y of the cosmos, the millionth observation was a spectroscopic measurement, not a picture. In such a measurement, incoming light is divided into component colors to reveal the chemical composition of cosmic sources. Hubble's exposur e was of the pla net HAT -P7b, a gas giant larger than Jupiter that orbits a star hotter than our Sun. HAT-P-7b, also known as Kepler 2b, has been studied by NASA's planet-hunting Kepler observatory after it was discover ed by ground-based observations. Hubble now is being used to analyze the chemic al composition of the planet's atmospher e. Scientists are looking for the spectral signature of water vapor, an extremely precise observation. It will take months of analyJupiter and Saturn continued from page 2 Saturn was an evening object July 2 and was beginning to set earlier in the west. I saw it with my 6 -inch f/9 Newtonian reflector at 150x. A great white storm that erupted in December in the north equatorial zone had spread across the planet and by July 2 had separated the darker browning temperate belt from the equatorial belts, ma king the temperate belt mor e distinct. Saturns ring system cast a distinct shadow onto the disk of the pa le yellow-tan planet. The Cassini division was mor e detectable this year than last as the rings wer e tilted at a greater angle to our view. The rings appeared slightly bluish toward the pr eceding limb tha n toward the following limb.
10

Sungazers continued from page 5 scope to wor k for sungazing. The first method is to use a solar filter. This cuts all waves in the light spectrum, thus dimming light sufficiently so as not to da ma ge the eye. The second method is to use a spectrohelioscope. This spreads the light spectrum and filters out all but one frequency, also mitigating da mage to the eye. Without one of these safeguards, viewing the Sun through a telescope can be ver y da ngerous to the unprotected eye. Ferris discussed some basic elements of quantum physics vs. classical physics. He explained that on a subatomic scale, particles are also waves. He noted that proton fusion is the reason the Sun shines, and can only be explained by quantum mechanics. He explor ed some possibilities for new solar technologies. Solar power holds gr eat potential, Ferris said, but current technology is lacking. One exa mple is solar panels. They strive to do something similar to photosynthesis, yet the lea ves of a tree are far mor e efficient. One goal of solar technology is to understand how we can strive to create something as efficient and effective as natures own process converting sunlight into power. Ferris explained that the same physics that makes the Sun shine, quantum mecha nics, is the sa me factor that will enable us to utilize and harness its power. Research isnt exact, Ferris said, and to see desired results, the only course is to fund a lot of seemingly impractical research a nd let scientists decide what to pursue. Results are unpredictable, but thats how great discoveries are made. Legislators continued from page 3 preservation of the nighttime skys unique qualities. Of particular inter est to astronomers in the main bill was a provision that would have enabled the commissioner to nominate as dark-sky preserves "areas especially suitable for astronomical observations and/or which provide, due to their darkness, nocturnal benefits to flora and fauna or to citizens desiring views of unpolluted or relatively unpolluted night skies."


Events on the Horizon August 2011
M: me mbers; P: open to the public; T: bring your telescopes, binoculars, etc.; C: cancelled if cloudy; AMNH: For ticket information, call (212) 769 -5200 HQ: at AAA headquarters, Downtown Community Center, 120 Warren St. For directions to AAA observing events, check the club's website, www.aaa.org. Tuesdays August 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, dusk-10 p. m. Observing on the High Line, Manhattan, P, T, C Enter at 14th Street. Next dates: Tuesdays in September. Wednesday, August 3, 8-10 p.m. Observing at Brooklyn Heights Promenade, P, T, C At end of Montague Street. Next date: September 7. Thursdays August 4, 11, 18, 25, sunset-10p. m. Observing and movie, Pier 1, Brooklyn, P, T, C Contact Rich Rosenberg at president@aaa.org or 718522-5014 to check whether observing is on. Info: http:// www.aaa.org/movieswithaview. Friday, August 12, 8:30-11 p. m. Observing at Carl Schurz Park, Manhattan, P, T, C Next date: September 9. Fridays August 12 and 26, 8-11 p. m. Observing at Inwood Hill Park, Manhattan, P, T, C Next dates: September 9 and 23. Model Lighting continued from page 1 for each property. An individual parcel is given a lumen allowance based on the lighting zone, the size of the property, and the degr ee of development on the property. Third, the MLO uses the IES' new BUG (Backlight, Uplight and Glare) classification of outdoor lighting fixtures to ensur e that only well-shielded fixtures are used. No uplight for area and street lighting, including parking lots, is allowed in any zone--except for ornamental lighting--with tight requirements for glare and backlight controls. The MLO sets fairly strict uplight allowances for orna mental lighting located in zones 0, 1 and 2. Even zones 3 and 4 requir e fairly tight uplight allowances. Leo Smith, the IDAs northeast regiona l director, notes that aside from shielding, "the other part to light pollution control deals with the a mount of light. Even if ever y luminaire is shielded, a light-pollution problem exists wher e too much light is used, since light also reflects off the surface." The issue, therefore, is whether numbers used in the MLO for allowances are correct, or need to be twea ked. "A research study is needed to prove the numbers right, or if not right, what the right numbers should be," Smith says. By a ny r easonable definition, the MLO is a dense Model Lighting continued on page 12
11

Wednesday, August 17, 6:30-8:30 p. m. Quarterly AAA board meeting, M, HQ At hea dquarters, 120 Warren Street. All members are invited to attend. Next date: November 16 Saturday, August 20, 7:30-11 p. m. Observing at Great Kills Gateway National Park, Staten Island, P, T, C Next date: September 17. Saturday, August 20, dusk to when you want to leave. Observing at North-South Lake in the Catskills, M, T, C Next date: September 17. Saturday, August 27, 10 a. m.-noon Solar observing in Central Park, P, T, C At the Conservator y Water. Next date: September 24. Wednesday, August 31, dusk-11 p. m. Observing at Prospect Park, Brooklyn, P, T, C Next date: September 21.


Model Lighting continued from page 11 document. Smit MLO Lite is in t ties, say 15,000 planning MLO r h implicitly agrees, observing that "an he works, targeted at smaller municipalipopulation or less." The associations are evisions ever y thr ee years.

ductions ha ve been. " Clyma notes that some allowances in a March 28 version are 70% of what they wer e last year, thats "no reduction at all but mer ely r eflects the cha nge fr om la mp lumens to luminaire lumens." "Most troubling of all," in Clymas view, "is the clear statement that IDA will now promote ,,all releva nt IES standards and practices. Ther e is almost no science supporting these standards, which have been developed to suit lighting-industry purposes and in any case were never intended to limit light pollution." The IDA's Smith asserts that "At the deepest level is fear by some dark-sky advocates that IES involvement in developing the MLO has conta minated the document. No matter what is said or done, ther e are those who believe the lighting industry is evil and that IDA getting involved with IES was the wrong approach." Smith adds that "there are two camps within the IDA. One ca mp believes that IES has too much influence over IDA, with some IDA board members also being lighting professionals. This same gr oup believes basically that IDA should never have enter ed into the MLO joint agreement with IES to develop the document, and that IDA compromised its principles in ma king concessions in the development of the MLO."

The MLO has been attacked for not being sufficiently responsive to dark-sky needs. Gail Clyma, an official of the or ganization Sensible and Efficient Lighting to Enha nce the Nighttime Environment (SELENE), states that "IES is a trade association of lighting manufacturers, with some members in related occupations (e.g., lighting design). Its recommended practices are drawn up by committees that are dominated by members who have a financial stake in more lighting. The practices ha ve nothing to do with curtailing light pollution." Clyma also cites a January analysis which demonstrated that MLO lumen allowances and permissible uplight would in many cases per mit lighting levels far above unregulated lighting practice, as well as existing effective lighting codes. She adds that while some assert that lumen allowa nces have been reduced since a June 2010 version of MLO, "its not clear how extensive and widespread these re-

Amateur Astronomers Association PO Box 150253 Brooklyn, NY 11215. ADDRESS SERVICE REQUESTED

First Class
12