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Journal of the Amateur Astronomers Association of New York July 2008 Volume 56 Number 7, ISSN 0146-7662

EYEPIECE

Talking About the Impossible With Michio Kaku
By Thomas Haeberle
Would it be possible t o wa lk t h r ou gh wa lls, b u ild starships or become invisible? "Physicists have learned that the `impossible' is a relative term and that without science there is no science fiction." So said City University of New York professor Dr. Michio Kaku at the American Museum of Natural History on June 2 when subjects discussed were space and time travel, force fields, phasers and teleportation.
"Feats considered impossible by today's physicists may be possible within a few centuries. If we were to encounter an advanced civilization, wouldn't their technology seem like magic to us? "Robert Goddard's early attempt at rocketry was denounced by T he N ew Y ork T im es. Turn of the 20thcentury physicist Lord Kelvin declared the airplane an impossibility and Lord Rutherford said building an atomic bomb was impracticable. How fantastic television and computers would seem at the turn of last century." Kaku's talk was based on h is n ew b ook , "Physics of the Impossible (Doubleday, $26.95)," which is divided into three sections of impossibilities. Class I includes force fields, telepathy and anti-universes, which don't violate the known laws of science and may become realities in the next century or two. Class II awaits realization farther in the future and includes faster-than-light travel and discovery of parallel universes. Kaku discusses perpetual motion machines and precognition in Class III, things that are impossible according to our current understanding of science. Invisibility may be a Class I possibility--or impossibility--at least at the microwave level as demonstrated by Dr. David Smith of Duke University. In a preview of a

TV show to be aired this month on the Science Channel, Kaku showed a discussion with Smith about ways in which metamaterials can manipulate light, just as glass or water bends light. Known as the Index of Refraction, it could be controlled inside a metamaterial in such a way that light passes around an object and makes the object invisible.
Teleportation was made popular b y t h e T V ser ies "Star Trek." Although most scientists have denounced teleportation of large objects; the laws of quantum theory at the atomic level may allow it. "Physicists think complex molecules could be teleported in the coming years," such as teleportation of water to the Moon. But teleportation of macroscopic objects, such as humans, would qualify as a Class II impossibility and will have to wait centuries, if indeed it's even possible, Kaku said. Another favorite device of science fiction is the laser or ray gun. Given the variety of today's commercial lasers, a laser for military use still hasn't been developed. This is due to the need for a miniature power pack with Kaku continued on page 11

No State Light Legislation This Year
Although the New York State Assembly passed lightpollution legislation June 23 by a vote of 111-32, the legislature adjourned for the year (the State Senate June 24, the State Assembly June 25) without State Senate action on the legislation. This means there will be no light bill until 2009, and since it will be a brand-new legislative session, things will have to start from scratch. For a roundup of light-pollution legislation at the local and state levels, see next month's Ey epiece.


What's Up
By Tony Hoffman The Sky for July 2008
Jupiter Rules the Night. O u r sola r syst em 's largest planet is at its best this month. It dominates the evening sky, blazing at magnitude -2.7 in eastern Sagittarius. Jupiter, which reaches opposition July 9, is about as far south as it ever gets, so it won't get too high in our sky. Your best view will be around midnight. Even the smallest binoculars will reveal Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, the four large worlds in their own right; only Europa is (just barely) smaller than Ganymede. A small telescope will show Jupiter's cloud belts, particularly in moments of steady air. Mars Plays Tag with Saturn. M a r s a n d Sa t u r n lin ger in Leo this month, though by the end of July Saturn will be sinking into the twilight. As July opens, Mars stands less than 1 degree from the slightly fainter Regulus, Leo's brightest star. Mars then draws away from Regulus and approaches Saturn. The two planets pass just 0.7 degrees from each other July 10, and should be visible together in a low-power telescope eyepiece field. July's Constellations. T h e su m m er M ilk y W a y is splashed across the sky, a beautiful sight worth a trip to a dark-sky location. From the south it runs through Sagittarius (the region of the galactic center) and Scorpius up through Ophiuchus, Scutum, Aquila, Cygnus and Cepheus to Cassiopeia in the northeast. Throughout its length are a huge number of star clouds, star clusters, bright and dark nebulae, and spectacular starfields. Vega rides high in the east, with Hercules and Corona Borealis near the meridian and Arcturus beginning its westward swing. Virgo stands in the southwest, while Leo hangs in the west above the sunset glare. The Big Dipper lies to the northeast, with bowl down and tail extending vertically. By late in the month, the Great Square of Pegasus swings into view in the northeast before midnight. July 1 M oon lies n ea r M er cu r y; M er cu r y a t gr ea t est elongation in morning sky; Moon at perigee, 223,391 miles from Earth, 5:27 p. m. July 2 New M oon a t 10: 19 p .m . July 6 M oon lies n ea r M a r s a n d Sa t u r n . July 9 F ir st -quarter Moon at 12:35 a.m.; Mars lies 0.7
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On July 10, Mars and Saturn stand less than a degree apart.

degrees July 14 July 17 July 18 July 25 July 27 peaks. July 29

from Saturn. M oon lies n ea r An t a r es. M oon lies n ea r J u p it er . F u ll M oon a t 3: 59 a .m . L a st -quarter Moon at 2:42 p.m. Sou t h er n Delt a Aq u a r id m et eor sh ower
M oon a t p er igee, 226,106 m iles a wa y, 7: 23 p .

Moon, Mars Pass Beehive
By Joseph A. Fedrick
The waxing crescent Moon passed the Beehive star cluster (M44) in Cancer May 10. I observed the cluster in 10x50 binoculars. The glare of the bright crescent Moon made it difficult to observe the dim stars of M44 just within half a degree of the Moon. Favorable libration of the Moon caused Mare Crisium to be rotated towards me so I could see Mare Marginalis and Mare Smithii near the lunar limb. With binoculars, I saw Mars less than 3 arc minutes north of the 5.3 mag star Eta Cancri May 19. I watched Mars approach the Beehive Cluster May 20 and pass it May 22 and 23. Then I watched Mars move through Cancer and head to a July 10 conjunction with Saturn.

One of My Finest SOHO Comets
A SOHO comet that I was the first to report was featured on spaceweather.com June 17. The animation shows the final hours in its approach to the Sun and ensueing vaporization. It's easily my second-brightest SOHO comet. I reported it June 15, about two minutes before an Italian observer.--Tony Hoffman


A Message from AAA President Richard Rosenberg
Hello, members: First of all, I thank all of you who have contributed to Neil Tyson's matching fund in honor of Fred Hess. Already we are close to our goal of $3,000. Many club members were eager to donate in Fred 's memory. Thank you, Neil, for your generosity, which has galvanized our club. Our annual Starfest in Central Park's Sheep Meadow is set for Saturday, September 6 (rain date the following evening). Nearby free parking is available for those bringing telescopes. Whether you have a scope, binoculars or just your naked eyes, come between dusk and 10 p. m. to see Jupiter, the Ring Nebula, the Andromeda Galaxy and the beautiful double star Albireo, among many other targets. Bring your family and friends. On Fridays, September 26 and October 3 we'll have observing sessions at Wagner Park in Battery Park City. A nature walk from 6 to 7:15 p. m. will be followed by solar observing (bring your filtered scope) and night -sky viewing. This is a spectacular site along the Hudson River. We expect to have monthly observing sessions at North-South Lake in the Catskills as soon as our forms get processed. This will provide a spectacularly dark site for club members. Board member Ed Fox is working on our entry in A stronom y magazine's Out-of-this-world program, which awards an astronomy club for its public outreach programs. The deadline for submitting our proposal is July 18, so if any of you want to help, send Ed an email at secretary@aaa.org or give me a call.

I hope to have good news next month about new locations for our club's indoor events.
Rich Rosenberg, AAA President, pr esident @a a a .or g, (718) 522-5014

AMNH Marks Phoenix Landing With Special Program
By Mary Carlson
We held our breaths for seven m in u t es. W ou ld t h e Phoenix Bird legend play out once more? It did! Mars now has an additional probe and poker on its surface. NASA had successfully launched a mission of spare parts, salvaged hardware, high hopes and dedication, and the Phoenix Lander spacecraft touched down on Mars' northern polar region on Sunday, May 25. The lander's objective is to collect and analyze soil samples while also searching for signs of water and other conditions favorable to life. The following day, Memorial Day, the American Museum of Natural History said "congratulations" by filling the Rose Center with a myriad of related activities for visitors. The massive NASA screen in the Cullman Hall of the Universe beamed reports from Mission Control and replayed documenting videos throughout the day. On hand for questions was Dr. Denton Ebel, curator of the museum's Ross Hall of Meteorites. He was accompanied by Prof. Martha Gilmore of Connecticut Wesleyan, a planetary geologist formerly with NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, whose specialty is Mars. The NASA group talked of the perils of t h e m ission from its inception, of its 10-month, 400 million-mile journey, of its miraculous descent and landing, and finally of the successful deployment of its critical solar arrays. They pointed out the roles of the Mars Orbiter and Mars Odyssey spacecraft as communication links with Phoenix. AMNH continued on page 6
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AMNH's Shara Quarterbacks Census of `Nearby' Stars
By Dan Harrison
A catalog of the roughly 1 m illion st a r s wit h in 300 light-years of the Sun is about to be published, AMNH astrophysicist Michael Shara told the Explorers Club April 14. "We've spent much of the last nine years trying to find all stars within this distance, and have nailed down all but 1% of them," said Shara, acknowledging the work of collaborator Sebastian Lepine. "Only 60% of them were known beforehand. "Around many planets in the new catalog are orbiting planets and perhaps on some planets is or was life." Shara said. "All 1 million are works in progress, such as presupernovae and planetary nebulae." Terming the Milky Way "the worst studied galaxy" and saying "we know endless nothing about our galaxy," Shara noted the galaxy's most massive stars are up to 80 times the mass of the Sun and kick off much UV radiation. UV light shows very hot stars vs. the uniform brightness of old stars. "I want to know whether the Milky Way looks like one or the other, or in between." Shara also observed the Milky Way looks stretched, unlike other galaxies. "Where things are matters. Massive stars are distributed, there are strong gravitational encounters, and stars can be thrown out and go wandering. Where do they wind up?" The complication in cataloging stars has, of course, been dust. Shara noted that one can't see much through it, so sampling the entire galaxy has been very difficult. That means data have been collected only within a few hundred or a couple of thousand light-years. Since seeing is hard, the Milky Way has been the most poorly understood and sampled galaxy within the nearest 30 million light-years. But trying to peer through t h e b la ck st u ff will n o longer be an exercise in futility because of new techniques using infrared technology. In the past five years, thanks to the military, dust has been shown to be pretty transparent to infrared light. Large infrared waves, with their large wavelengths, wash around dust particles and
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"let us see right through the Milky Way. The amount of obscuration is trivial compared to that in visible light." Shara noted that some a st r on om er s t ook t h e la r gest infrared chips available, assembled a mosaic of 4x4 chips and built a camera that takes bigger infrared pictures than anyone has done. "I paid to the finish the camera, shipped it to Chile and conducted a survey of the entire Milky Way with very special filters that only permit transmission of light from dying stars, presupernovae, planetary nebulae and binaries." Pictures from other astronomers were selected and aligned with these pictures." Shara said that, in addition to finding every star within 300 light-years of the Sun, he wants to find every massive presupernova in the Milky Way. Never one to duck a metaphor, he said the large survey "will include all the tiny sparrows whereas the presupernova stars will be the mega fauna, the bull elephants of the known universe." Shara doesn't have a map of the biggies yet. There are thousands of candidates and he'll start to test some of the candidates pretty soon. "By finding every one of t h e m illion st a r s in t h e ga laxy, and measuring the motions of each, we can get a gorgeous sample of what the rest of the galaxy is like." Shara noted that a problem arises when one looks at a typical piece of the Milky Way in terms of which stars are close and which are far away. No less a personage than Edmund Halley gauged the motion of close stars by looking at an almost 2,000-year-old catalog and noticing that the three brightest stars--Sirius, Aldebaran and Arcturus--had moved by a degree. "That's the technique Lepine and I employed to try and find half of nearby stars." There have been some interesting steps along the way. "We've found a strange, remarkable class of M dwarfs, stars that don't belong to the plane of the Milky Way. Some tramps are whizzing through the galaxy and some live way above or way below the plane of the galaxy and are paying us a visit. These have almost no metals and are the most pristine, primordial stars."


Human History's Great Divide: Finding Earth-like Planets
By Edward J. Fox
We're fortunate in t h a t we're living at the time of the "great divide in human history," According to Dr. Sara Seager. "For the first time in history, we're on the verge of finding planets like Earth. We're fortunate to be living at a time when science will bridge the gap in that divide.." Seager, associate professor of physics at MIT, in a presentation on exoplanets May 12 at the Hayden, said this will happen in the foreseeable future and explained the latest progress in the quest. Seager put the numbers in perspective. There are believed to be about 100 billion stars in the Milky Way and 100 billion galaxies in the universe. The likelihood that some exoplanets are Earth-like seems great. Since 1993, when the first exoplanets were discovered, nearly 300 exoplanets have been detected. Seager believes that from what we know about planet formation, each star probably has one or more planets. ured. This has accelerated the race to find exoplanets that might be habitable. Scientists study the brightness of the star in three phases. As the planet passes in front of the star, the light dims. As it orbits beyond the star, the combined light brightens. As it passes behind the star, the light dims. By comparing et transits the star termine the finger the planet and spectral patterns for m ed a s t h e p la n with the star alone, it's possible to deprint of molecules in the atmosphere of develop a possible bio-signature.

We're currently capable of sea r ch in g a m on g on ly the closest stars in the Milky Way. And even then, as Seager put it, "We're looking for subtle things among the glare of a star." She likened it to trying to spot a moth flying six feet in front of a searchlight, shining directly at you, from a distance of 2,600 miles.
One of the first steps in finding stars which have planets is analyzing the apparent "wobble" of the star due to gravitational effects of orbiting planets. The star and its planets orbit around a common center of gravity. The larger the planet, the more it induces a wobble in the star. Through analysis, the relative size of the planet can be determined. Most exoplanets detected are Jupiter-sized gas giants. Seager acknowledged that current detection methodologies are biased in finding large planets, since initial detection relies on analysis of the star's wobble. If a planet's orbit t r a n sit s t h e st a r in t h e d ir ect lin e of sight to the Earth, it facilitates spectral analysis. Transiting planets have changed the study of exoplanets because their physical properties can be routinely meas-

Scientists are working to overcome the "refracted light problem" and cancel light from a star to "see" a planet. Technologies being studied to accomplish this range from software, to special lenses, to physically blocking the light. In the latter case, a large deployable screen would be unfolded in space to physically shield the space telescope from a star's light while trying to image a planet. This would be like using your hand to shade your eyes from the Sun and trying to see an object near the Sun. Smaller planets or multiple planets will be harder to detect, but Seager is confident this will happen as technologies develop. Scientists are surprised that many hot Jupiter-like planets detected orbit so close to their stars. It's believed these planets weren't formed so close, but some external force altered the original orbit. Seager described instruments b ein g d evelop ed t o carry on the effort. Future telescopes such as NASA's Kepler Mission, to launch next year, would discover dozens or hundreds of Earth-like worlds by analyzing thousands of stars. The Space Interferometry Mission (SIM), to be launched early in the next decade, will contain multiple telescopes placed along a 30-foot structure. With a resolution approaching the limits of optics, the SIM will be so sensitive it almost defies belief. Orbiting Earth, it will be able to detect the motion of a lantern waved by an astronaut on Mars.
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A Note from Ey ep iece Editor Dan Harrison
Dear Eyepiece reader: As members who write for Ey epiece are aware, I often have to trim stories for space. One such item ran in May. It was on Hayden director Neil Tyson winning the 2007 American Association for the Advancement of Science Public Understanding of Science and Technology Award for, among other things, "dynamic leadership in engaging the public in the frontiers of science." Here's what was cut: Historically, Tyson said, scientists haven't always been quick to recognize the importance of popularizing their work for the public. The prize "represents a deeper level of appreciation" from his colleagues on the value of such outreach. Tyson said scientists should consider ways to engage the public by such means as visiting schools, agreeing to press interviews despite busy schedules and writing op-ed pieces for local newspapers. I thought of Neil's comment again when I received an e-mail from AAA's lecture chair David Kraft. In part, David said his job of lining up lectures is a no-brainer. "I say this because the scientific community is blessed with so many people who not only do good science but also have both the ability and interest to communicate it to a general audience." To me, Neil's and David's similar thoughts apply to knowledgeable amateur astronomers as well as professional scientists. We can play a much greater role in public outreach. Let's look for opportunities and get out there! Best wishes for a great summer. Dan

AMNH continued from page 3 Museum volunteers encouraged visit or s t o t est soil samples (talc, quartz, coarse sand and compost) through touch and examination by magnifying glass to consider what Martian soil might actually contain and what it definitely would not (compost). A few budding soil analysts were spawned that day. Another museum team guided children in creating their own concepts of Mars out of red clay. Each child formed a ball which was subsequently rolled in sand to simulate the Martian surface. A polar cap of white clay topped off the orb and the Lander site was identified with a toothpick-induced dent. As spectrometry will play a major role in Phoenix soilanalysis experiments, a museum representative demonstrated the light signatures of various gases. He also provided an opportunity to view people and objects in the infrared area of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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Nearby, children learned the principle of the vacuum of space by providing and then removing air from a sealed container of marshmallows. They found these changes to be not magic, just pure physics. At the robotics area, fu t u r e en gin eer s p r ogr a m m ed ists of commands to small robots and subsequently sent hem onto the floor to implement these commands, simiar to the programming of the Mars Spirit and Opporunity rovers.

l t l t

Museum representatives were available throughout the day for questions, directions and guidance to the various exhibits. The AMNH with would-be ton Willamette ets all silently venture. was truly scientists Meteorite witnessed energized this Memorial Day and their discoveries. The 15and the pristine overhead plana truly wonderful scientific ad-


Pennsylvania Park Receives Dark-sky Certification
Cherry Springs State Park in P en n sylva n ia h a s been designated as the second International Dark Sky Park (IDSP) by the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA), following National Bridges National Monument in Utah. The certification recognizes the park's exceptional commitment to dark-sky protection and restoration on public lands. The IDSP program was established in 2006. The park has become a leader in night-sky protection and appreciation. Cherry Springs is far from cities and among the forested plateaus of north-central Pennsylvania. Cherry Springs is nearly as natural as it was two centuries ago. The park offers one of the last best views of the starry sky in the Eastern United States. Cherry Springs experiences almost no light pollution. The park has retrofitted a ll ou t d oor night-sky-friendly. Using light fixtures all light downward and electricity-saving pact fluorescent lamps, there is more than ligh t s t o b e that direct 13-watt comenough light for visibility given the surrounding environment. Some areas of the park are designated no-light zones to protect owls, bats and indigenous mammals, and to allow astronomers' and casual stargazers' eyes to become fully darkadapted. The IDA designation cu lm in a t es a n effor t that began in the late 1990s by amateur astronomers ecstatic that starry skies were still accessible in the East. In 2000 Cherry Springs was declared a dark-sky site by the state. By 2002 the park was providing regular stargazing programs for visitors. In 2003 Pennsylvania Parks and Forests Foundation recognized the importance of the night sky above Cherry Springs and aided in implementing a strategic vision for the park that included telescope pads, observatories for rent and educational materials, all designed to facilitate enjoyment of the starry sky. The light pollution-free sky is also a tourism draw and benefit to the local economy. The IDA is working with several other parks towards IDSP certification. Criteria are available on the IDA website: www.darksky.org.

Citizen Scientists Probe Night-sky Brightness
The international star-hunting a ct ivit y G L O BE At Night inspired 6,838 measurements of night-sky brightness by citizen scientists around the world February 25March 8, including 660 digital measurements using handheld sky-quality meters. The third edition of GLOBE at Night had aid from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific to help spread the word to amateur astronomers and science centers. The campaign received measurements from 62 countries, surpassing last year's total of 60. More than 4,800 measurements came from the U. S. A representative map of GLOBE At Night 2008 observations is available at www.noao.edu/outreach/press/pr08/pr0805.html. The numbers fell r ou gh ly m id wa y b et ween 2006 and 2007, which may result from several factors. The citizenscientist network in North America experienced abnormally cloudy skies. The timing of the March new Moon, required to give everyone sufficiently dark skies to properly observe Orion, fell further into summer vacation for observers in Chile and some other Southern Hemisphere countries, which made it harder to attract students. The program directs t h e public on how to record stars visible in Orion, from different locations. Observers report results online by comparing their view of Orion with a set of template images on the program's website, which shows the number of stars in the constellation for a range of visibilities from bright skies to very dark. The digital version of GLOBE at Night takes advantage of low-cost digital sky-quality meters which can make a highly repeatable direct measurement of integrated sky brightness. The exercise and a digital effort to obtain measurements of urban dark skies will be conducted again in
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Briefs: Mars Phoenix Lander Exposed Bits of Ice
Scientists believe NASA's Phoenix M a r s L a n d er exposed bits of ice while recently digging a trench in the Martian arctic. Crumbs of bright material initially photographed in the trench later vanished, meaning they must have been frozen water that vaporized after being exposed. The little clumps completely disappearing over the course of a few days is perfect evidence that it's ice. There had been some question whether the bright material was salt. Salt can't do that. The bright material was seen in the bottom of a trench that Phoenix enlarged June 15. Several bright crumbs were gone when the spacecraft looked into the trench again. Phoenix's arm, meanwhile, encountered a hard surface while digging another trench and scientists were hopeful of uncovering an icy layer. The arm went into a holding position after three attempts to dig further. This is expected when it the reaches a hard surface. A trio of planets ca lled su p er -Earths has been spotted orbiting a Sun-like star. Super-Earths are more massive than Earth but less massive than Uranus and Neptune. The presence of super-Earths suggests finding a world like ours is a matter of time. A team inferred the existence of the planets through the wobble technique. In addition, astronomers have tallied 45 new candidate planets with a mass below 30 Earth masses and an orbital period shorter than 50 days. The deluge implies one of every three Sun-like stars harbors such planets. The trio's host star, HD 40307, is slightly less massive than the Sun and is 42 light-years away, toward the southern Doradus and Pictor constellations. The smallest of the trio weighs 4.2 Earth masses and orbits HD 40307 every 4.3 Earth days, while the largest, with a mass 9.4 times that of Earth, has a 20.4-day orbit. The middleweight is 6.7 Earth masses with a 9.6-day orbit. NASA's newest space telescope a im ed a t glim p sin g the unexplored universe blasted into space. The Gamma ray Large Area Telescope, nearly five tons, is orbiting 345 miles above Earth. GLAST includes two main telescopes designed to scan the sky in gamma -ray light. Scientists hope the telescope will help solve such befuddling cosmic mysteries as the nature of dark matter, the workings of black holes and the mechanics of spinning pulsars.
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Pluto a planet despite the International Astronomical Union's latest ruling to reclassify it. The IAU declared that Pluto will henceforth be known as a plutoid, a new class of objects with two members; the other is Eris, a small body beyond Pluto. The IAU demoted Pluto to "dwarf planet" status in 2006. The latest decision took scientists by surprise, with many peeved that the IAU developed the term behind closed doors. The IAU definition of plutoid: "Plutoids are celestial bodies in orbit around the Sun at a distance greater than that of Neptune that have sufficient mass for their self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that they assume a hydrostatic equilibrium (near-spherical) shape, and that have not cleared the neighborhood around their orbit." An icy, unknown world m igh t lu r k b eyon d t h e or b it of Pluto, according to a new computer model. The hidden world, thought to be much bigger than Pluto, could explain unusual features of the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper Belt contains many peculiar features that can't be explained by standard solar system models. One is the highly irregular orbits of some of the belt's members. According to the model, Sedna and other Kuiper Belt oddities could be explained by a world 30%-70% as massive as Earth orbiting 100-200 AU from the Sun. At that distance, any water on the world's surface would be completely frozen. However, it might support a subsurface ocean like those suspected on Titan and Enceladus. Some building blocks of life on E a r t h ca m e fr om space, according to a new study of molecules in meteorite fragments. The study confirms that some raw materials for DNA and RNA found in a meteorite didn't contaminate the rock after it landed on Earth. The materials are the molecules uracil and xanthine, precursors to the compounds that make up DNA and RNA. A team discovered the molecules in rock fragments of the Murchison meteorite, which crashed in Australia in 1969. The genetic building blocks contain a heavy form of carbon which could only have formed in space. That the molecules were found on the meteorite and others doesn't mean the same compounds weren't also independently synthesized on Earth. Scientists are unsure how many building blocks of life on Earth originated here and how many came from beyond. A blast of ultraviolet light sign a ls t h e violen t d ea t h Continued on page 9

Disgruntled scientists renewed t h eir vows t o ca ll


Briefs: Third, Smaller Red Spot Appears on Jupiter
Continued from page 8 of the universe's most massive stars. Astronomers have viewed this for the first time, detecting the UV signal of a hefty star on the verge of explosion. Usually, when astronomers see a supernova, the star has been destroyed. Light traveling ahead of the shock wave traveled through the star before it was destroyed, revealing properties and conditions of the star at the moment it died but before the shock wave actually disrupted it. Until now, scientists haven't seen the final moments of the doomed star just before the visible explosion. The space telescope GALEX, which views the universe in UV, saw the blast. GALEX provided a pre-show of a suspected red supergiant measuring 500-1,000 solar radii on the verge of explosion. The UV peak represented a unique phase in the formation of supernova SNLS-04D2dc, just before the shock wave from its collapsed core reached the star's surface to violently eject its shell of hot gas. A third red spot h a s a p p ea r ed on J u p it er . Ast r on omers spotted the new storm, smaller than the Great Red Spot and Little Red Spot, in visible-light and nearinfrared images. The new spot was previously a white, oval-shaped storm. One theory suggests such storms have enough power and size to dredge material from deep beneath Jupiter's clouds and lift it to higher altitudes, exposing it to solar UV radiation that changes the color to red. The newest storm may merge with the Great Red Spot when the two meet this month, assuming they continue on their current paths. Otherwise the Great Red Spot may simply shove it aside. The images also support the idea of Jupiter undergoing global climate change. Warming near the equator and cooling at the South Pole could be destabilizing the southern hemisphere, causing jet streams to go haywire and spawn storms. Meanwhile, a potentially historic ch a n ge is occu r ring on Jupiter. An upstart storm now rivals the planet's Big Red Spot as king of storms. The Little Red Spot shows size and speed in threatening to knock the former champion off its perch, with maximum winds reaching 384 mph. The Little Red Spot's speed as measured in 2007 and the Great Red Spot when last measured in 2000 are just about the same. The Little Red Spot may already match the Great Red Spot for size, although the latter still appears almost twice as large on the surface of Jupiter's atmosphere when examined in visible light. In the infrared, which sees deeper beneath clouds, the Little Red Spot appears part of an interacting system that's larger than the Great Red Spot. The Little Red Spot has steadily gained strength as the Big Red Spot shrinks. The Milky Way weighs a b ou t 1 t r illion t im es a s much as our Sun, according to a new estimate. Previous estimates ranged from 750 billion solar masses to 2 trillion. Astronomers used a more refined method to conclude the galaxy's mass is slightly less than 1 trillion solar masses. The new estimate is based on a large sample of stars in the galactic halo, a relatively sparse sphere of stars that surrounds the galaxy's main disk. The speeds of stars in the halo reveal the mass of the galaxy by allowing astrophysicists to infer the amount of gravity required to keep those stars in orbit. The Milky Way has less dark matter than previously believed and is more efficient than thought in converting its original supply of hydrogen and helium into stars. The new math was based on data for 2,400 stars vs. previous estimates' 500 objects or fewer.

Researchers have used E a r t h -based radar to examine ejecta from the massive impact that formed the Moon's Orientale impact basin. The basin is at the very edge of the Moon's visible face. Previously, this crater was difficult to study because it's only partially visible to telescopes on Earth. Newly developed techniques can make high-res radar observations of the region. The Orientale basin was formed early in the Moon's history. The crater is surrounded by three concentric circles. Previously, scientists had difficulty figuring out which ejecta deposits were associated with specific impact basins. The new observations allow scientists to look deeper into the regolith, and to put a number to the rocks associated with the basin. The team has determined what different ejecta look like and how far they spread over the lunar surface. Surprisingly, ejecta from the Orientale basin can be found over much of the Moon's south polar highlands.
Scientists have found sign s t h a t wa t er m a y on ce have gurgled up through the Martian soil in hydrothermal vents similar to Yellowstone's. The site could contain preserved traces of ancient Martian life if life might Continued on page 12
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News is Bountiful from AAS Conference in St. Louis
Astrophysicists have found t h a t som e of t h e m ost massive black holes use high-energy jets to stomp out nearby star formation. Models had over-predicted stellar mass in low-mass and high-mass galaxies. To make the models fit with observations, astronomers relied on means for quenching star formation. In less massive galaxies, exploding stars were added, imparting enough energy to disperse close-knit bundles of gas that fuel star formation. When a galaxy gets to the equivalent of 10 billion Suns, however, supernovae lack enough power to throw out star-forming gas. Theorists figured that in beefier galaxies, supermassive black holes could take over and stomp star formation. Scientists looked at the level of star-snuffing in post-starburst galaxies, which show evidence of recent (within 1 billion years) star formation that was abruptly halted. If supernovae were the only means of kicking out gas, one would expect the rate of star quenching to decrease as the galaxy mass goes up. And that's what was found for galaxies below 10 billion solar masses. Above this weight, they found the opposite: As mass increased, star quenching also boosted dramatically. Once galaxies grow to about 10 billion solar masses, when supernovae can't kick out gas, active supermassive black holes take over. Quark stars, exotic objects yet t o b e d ir ect ly ob served, are part of a new theory to explain some of the universe's brightest stellar explosions. Super-luminous supernovae, which produce more than 100 times more light energy than normal supernovae and occur in about one of every 1,000 supernovae explosions, have long baffled astrophysicists. The problem: finding a source for all of that extra energy. Scientists think they have a possible source: the explosive conversion of a neutron star into a quark star. A quark star is thought to pack a similar mass into an object just 12 miles across. As if in a cosmic hug, t h e sp ir a l a r m s of som e ga la xies wrap around themselves more tightly than others. The key: Galaxies holding heftier black holes at their centers also have more tightly wound spiral arms. The finding gives astronomers a way to weigh supermassive black holes. This is seen as an easy way to determine the masses of supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies very far away, and a way to measure the size of these black holes to up to 8 billion light-years away. Results come from a study of 27 spiral galaxies. Galaxies with
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the smallest black holes at their centers showed angles of up to 43 degrees between the arms and the central bulge. The tightest data came from galaxies with the biggest back holes, which had just 7 degrees between the spiral arms and the central bulges. Perhaps the more concentrated the dark matter, the larger a black hole and the tighter the spiral arms. For decades, astronomers p ict u r ed t h e M ilk y W a y as sporting four major spiral arms. But it now seems there are just two. In addition, new images reveal a completely new arm around one side of the galactic center. The new arm is a virtual twin of a known arm on the near side of the galactic center. Scientists noticed an increase in the number of stars in the direction of one arm, but not in the direction of two others. The fourth arm wraps around the outer portion of our galaxy and can't be seen by Spitzer. A new extrasolar planet lik ely cover ed wit h a d eep ocean, is the lowest-mass exoplanet to orbit a normal star. The planet is three times Earth's mass. The planet's host star is 3,000 light-years from Earth. The host star's mass is uncertain, with one estimate putting it at 6% of the Sun's mass, or just below the mass needed to sustain nuclear reactions in its core, thus making it a brown dwarf. Another estimate shows a mass slightly above 8% of a solar mass, which would make the star a very lowmass hydrogen-burning star. No planets were previously found to orbit stars with masses less than about 20% of the Sun. The planet orbits its star at about the same distance as Venus orbits the Sun. But the host star is likely 3,000-1 million times fainter than the Sun. The identity of mysterious d a r k m a t t er m a y b e cla r ified from inside the Sun by a look for one of the prime candidates. Two hypothetical particles have become prime suspects to explain the fundamental make-up of dark matter: axions and WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles). Many teams are seeking the heavyweight WIMPs. They hope to detect the gamma rays produced when, hypothetically, WIMPs and their antimatter selves annihilate each other. Few groups are searching for lightweight axions. One team says it's onto a promising and new way to search for the axion: looking inside the Sun. The Sun is thought to possibly be a factory for axions. When photons at the Sun's core feel a magnetic


Events on the Horizon July 2008
M: members; P: open to the public; T: bring your telescopes, binoculars, etc.; C: cancelled if cloudy; HQ: at AAA headquarters, 1010 Park Avenue (between 84th and 85th streets); AMNH: For ticket information, call (212) 769-5200 For directions to AAA observing events, check the club's website at www.aaa.org. www.aaa.org for details. Next date: August 14. Tuesday, July 22, dusk to 10 p. m. Observing at Cadman Plaza, Brooklyn, P, T, C Next date August 5. Friday, July 25, dusk to 10 p. m. Observing at Carl Schurz Park, Manhattan, P, T, C Next date August 29. Saturday, July 26, 10 a. m. to noon Solar Observing, P, C Conservatory Waters, Central Park. Next date August 30. Saturday, July 26, 1 to 4 p. m. Observers' Group, M, HQ Next d a t e Au gu st 30. mastered nanotechnology." This means its starships wouldn't have to be large. They could send millions to explore inhabited planets. "Desolate moons would be the best places for nanoships. Perhaps our Moon has been visited in the past, as depicted in the movie `2001,' perhaps the most realistic depiction of an extraterrestrial encounter." The not be robots before idea of artificial intelligence or smart robots may far off and could be classified as Class I. "Today's have no common sense and have a long way to go they become a danger to humans," Kaku said.

Saturday, July 5, dusk Observing at Great Kills Gateway National Park, Staten Island, P, T, C Next date August 9 Wednesday, July 9, 8-11 p. m. Observing at Prospect Park, Brooklyn, P, T, C Next date August 6. Thursday, July 10, 6 to 8 p. m. Recent Advances in Astronomy Seminar, M Note earlier time. Location yet to be determined. Check Kaku continued from page 1 the power of a huge electrical power station in the palm of your hands. Currently the only miniature power pack with enormous energy is a small hydrogen bomb. An advanced civilization could manipulate natural "death stars" called gamma ray bursters and point them in any direction desired. In fact, there could be one, right now, pointing at our planet. "A gamma-ray `gun' is pointed straight at Earth, in the form of `death star' WR104." It's a rotating star that is preparing to explode at the end of its life. Even though it's 8,000 light-years away, a short gamma-ray burst at supernova strength could zap away half the Earth's ozone layer, drastically increasing the amount of deadly space radiation that penetrates our atmosphere. "The good news is it may be hundreds of thousands of years before it blows, so we have plenty of time for planning." Starships and UFOs are an exciting possibility, but "any alien civilization capable of star-faring certainly has

Time travel may be remotely possible, but "because the laws of time travel are closely linked to the physics of wormholes, it seems to be a Class II impossibility." Kaku pointed out a classic example of a perpetualmotion machine (a Class III impossibility) found in Isaac Asimov's novel "The Gods Themselves," where an obscure chemist thinks he's found a device able to satisfy civilization's thirst for energy. He and his company be11


Briefs continued from page 9 have existed on Mars. The Spirit rover found deposits of pure silica, a form of silicon that occurs when hot water reacts with rocks, in Gusev Crater. Making pure silica requires a lot of hot water. This relationship also links the silica to Home Plate, a football field-sized volcanic feature in the Columbia Hills. The team eventually found silica deposits in many places nearby. In 2004, NASA's Opportunity r over fou n d evid en ce that water had once flowed across Mars. But a new study throws some cold water, and a big pinch of salt, on those hopes. To assess Mars' habitability one needs to consider the properties of its water. A team analyzed salt deposits in 4-billion-year-old Martian rock. The new analysis shows water that would have flowed across ancient Martian rocks may have been exceedingly briny. No matter how far back we peer into Mars' history, we may never see a point at which the planet really looked like Earth. The high salinity, however, doesn't rule out life forms of a type we've never encountered, but life that could originate and persist in such a setting would require biochemistry distinct from any known on Earth. The finding doesn't preclude that less salty waters once flowed on Mars, though Meridiani Planum, where the Opportunity rocks were found, is believed to have been one of the wetter, more hospitable places on the planet.

Kaku continued from page 11 come rich, putting the oil and other energy companies out of business. The world is drunk with free energy, until one physicist asks "Where is the energy coming from?" He discovers the horrible truth that the energy is pouring in from a hole in space connecting to a parallel universe, with catastrophic consequences for Earth, for galaxies and stars are being destroyed in the process. Kaku is considered one of the co-founders of string theory and is dedicated to finding the "theory of everything." His book has many more topics of interest and Kaku is a very engaging writer. With his many publications and books, including "Hyperspace" and "Parallel Worlds," and a summer Science Channel program in the works, Kaku, one of the world's leading theoretical physicists, is truly a media star.

Contacting the AAA
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