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On the Way to Under standing the Time Phenomenon: the Constr uctions of Time in Natur al Science. Par t 2. The "Active" Pr oper ties of Time Accor ding to N. A. Kozyr ev. Singapor e, New Jer sey, London, Hong Kong: Wor ld Scientific. 1996. Pp. 1-42. © A.P.Levich

A SUBSTANTIAL INTERPRETATION OF N.A.KOZYREV'S CONCEPTION OF TIME

A. P. Levich
1.On the existence of the "time flow" N.A.Kozyrev, an outstanding astronomer and natural scientist, enriched the dynamic picture of the World by introducing a new entity, possessing "active properties" and coinciding with neither matter, nor field, nor space-time in its usual understanding. This entity is difficult not only for intuitive or logical perception but also for a verbal description since a proper complex of concepts and images for dealing with the new ideas is yet to be developed. The researchers "read" N.A.Kozyrev's works in different ways, accentuating different aspects and viewing the subject from different angles. Thus naturally non-coinciding interpretations of N.A.Kozyrev's ideas come into existence. I.A.Yeganova exposes N.A.Kozyrev's views by introducing a "meta-interaction, embracing the whole material world and mediating the existence of all the manifestations of matter by self-regulation in a unified universal process" (Yeganova 1984, p.2). Therewith it cannot be excluded that "there exists a material carrier (a certain medium), directly "converting" cause into effect" (Yeganova 1984, p.32). S.M.Korotayev (see his chapter in this volume) stresses in N.A.Kozyrev's time conception the causal nature of the fundamental irreversibility, also recognising that N.A.Kozyrev's causal mechanics contains a substantial time construction. In the present review it is suggested to look at N.A.Kozyrev's ideas basically from the standpoint of their substantial interpretation. N.A.Kozyrev imagined time as "a mighty flow embracing all the material processes in the universe, and all the processes taking place in these systems are sources feeding that flow" (Kozyrev 1963, p.96). The author writes about the intensity or density of the time flow, the energy it carries, its emission and absorption, the rectilinearity of its propagation, its reflection from obstacles and absorption by matter... By N.A.Kozyrev, "time flows into a system through a cause to an effect" (Kozyrev 1971, p.118). "There is an impression that time is pulled inside by a cause and gets denser at the location of an effect" (Kozyrev 1971, p.129). "... In every process of Nature time can be formed or spent" (Kozyrev 1971, p.129). Therefore it appears to be reasonable to identify N.A.Kozyrev's flow with some substantial flow whose source is, by Kozyrev, any irreversible, out-of-equilibrium process (he apparently meant the processes accompanied by system energy and thermodynamic entropy changes). The arguments which had convinced N.A.Kozyrev that the conception of time flow was necessary, can be estimated to be speculative; however, most of

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his views resulted from many years of experiments. The experimental material is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections of the review. Kozyrev pointed out the sharp contradiction between the second law of thermodynamics which brings nearer the thermal death of the Universe, and the absence of any signs of equilibrium in the observed diversity of the Universe. He stressed that "the a ttempts to explain the absence of thermal death have been quite apart from the real Universe observed by the astronomers. The point is that the celestial bodies and their systems are so well isolated from each other that their thermal death must have occurred much sooner than any external system could interfere. Therefore degraded states of systems ought to dominate, whereas they are almost never met. And the task is not only to explain the non-equilibrium state of the whole Universe, but also to gain an understanding why separate systems and celestial bodies themselves continue to live despite the short relaxation times" (Kozyrev 1963, p.96). Various hypotheses are possible attempting to "save" the second law of thermod ynamics. For instance, the one asserting that the Universe is isolated indeed but the present moment of cosmological time is not very far from the "initial" fluctuation (singularity, cataclysm), so that the signs of degradation cannot be too clear, i.e., the "death" is pos tponed to a remote future. N.A.Kozyrev suggested an alternative version: the Universe and its subsystems are not isolated, i.e., the necessary condition for the second law of thermodynamics is not valid: "there are permanently acting causes in nature, preventing entropy increase" (Kozyrev 1958, p.3). A necessary factor, violating the isolated state of systems, is just the Kozyrev flow. "The problem of surmounting a thermal death of the World is most closely co nnected with that of the origin of solar and stellar radiation" (Kozyrev 1958, p.4). "It is of interest that even such a concrete question, namely, why do the Sun and the stars shine, i.e., why are they out of thermal equilibrium with the ambient space, cannot be answered within the known physical laws. This conclusion follows from astronomical data analysis. The radii, masses and luminosities, i.e., energy release per unit time, are known for many stars. From known mass and radius one can estimate not only mean density but also pressure inside the star. For a perfect gas the ratio of these two quantities determines the temperature inside the star. A comparison of temperatures and densities obtained in this way shows that the matter inside stars, except white dwarfs, is indeed a perfect gas. A star ' s luminosity should depend on its size and heat transfer conditions, determined ultimately by the temperature and density. Therefore stellar luminosity should be a certain function of stellar mass and radius. In a space parametrized by luminosity, mass and radius the stars should align themselves at a certain surface whose equation is to be determined from heat transfer conditions. Now assume that inside a star certain heat generation processes, depending on physical conditions and compensating the heat transfer, take place, for instance, thermonuclear reactions. Then heat generation will be equal to luminosity and depend on the star ' mass and radius according to the law characteristic of that reaction. s Thus in the "luminosity-mass-radius" space another surface emerges where the stars should be located. Provided the thermal equilibrium condition is valid, stars can exist only at the line of intersection of the two surfaces, that of heat transfer and that of heat genera2


tion. What is actually the case, the stars are situated at a certain surface rather than a line, occupying a significant domain. This indicates that no specific energy source exists inside the stars. In these conditions stellar lifetimes, as calculated by Helmholtz and Kelvin, are too short: e.g., only about thirty million years for the Sun. Actually, by reliable geological data, the Sun lives much longer than that" (Kozyrev 1963, p.96). I.A.Yeganova (1984a, pp.4-5) commented: "Unfortunately N.A.Kozyrev' works, s above all analysing in detail the question of whether there are necessary physical conditions in stars for the corresponding thermonuclear reactions, were not apprehended and therefore could not affect the further development of ideas in this field: at that time everybody was "bewitched" by G.Bethe' thermonuclear cycles (Bethe 1968). The thermon us clear stellar energy paradigm got its first appreciable stroke from the first Brookhaven experiments performed by R.Davis and aimed at discovering solar neutrino, indicators of the thermonuclear nature of solar energy. The researchers had to admit that "we unde rstand worse than we used to believe even the structure of main-sequence stars" (Sciama 1973, p.16), that "other energy sources can also exist in stars" (Sobolev 1975, p.479). There appeared other suggestions concerning stellar energy sources, see, e.g., papers cited in the article by E.S.Meksi (1982). Other significant discrepancies in stellar structure and evolution theory resting on thermonuclear reactions, became known. They are connected with many modern data of geology and paleoclimatology and also with the discovered 160-minute oscillations of the Sun (Severny 1983). However, the most recent results obtained by Davis' group, although indicating the solar electronic neutrino flux 3 or 4 times smaller than that predicted by theory, ... did not encourage the physicists to perform the necessary revision of the idea of thermonuclear origin of solar energy (Kopysov 1983; Davis 1983; Pontecorvo 1983). In such a situation N.A.Kozyrev' works (1948, 1951) s preserve their significance as those revealing the inherent inconsistency" of the above ideas. Recall that, according to Kozyrev, "stars are machines" getting energy from the "time flow". Kozyrev' flow manifests itself in many mechanical phenomena. Irreversible pro cs esses rotate the beam or disk of a torsion balance when they, in the experimenters' vie wpoint, emit or absorb Kozyrev' flow. (For instance, in Kozyrev' experiments those pro cs s esses included body deformations, encounter of an air jet with an obstacle, sandglass operation, light absorption, friction, burning, some observer ' actions, body heating and s cooling, phase transitions in substances, their dissolving and mixing, plant fading and nonlight radiation from astronomical objects.) It turns out that the flow can be absorbed, shielded or sometimes reflected by bodies. Inelastic processes in rigid bodies change their weight, while elastic bodies change their elasticity characteristics. Whipping tops change their weight when involved in an additional process, such as vibration, heating or cooling or electric current transition. Many features of the Earth' figure and climate, as well as s those of other planets, are explained by their being gigantic gyroscopes subject to the influence of dissipative processes. The flow, accompanying dissipative processes, causes also responses of nonmechanical detectors such as resistors' resistance values, mercury level in thermometers, quartz crystal vibration frequencies, thermocouple electric potentials, water viscosity,
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electronic work function in photoelectric cells, chemical reaction rates, bacteria and plant growth parameters. The effect magnitudes depend on the energy characteristic of the initiating processes, on geographic latitude of the experiment site (for mechanical experiments), on season, on additional active non-equilibrium processes occurring in the neighbourhood of the detectors, and on some other irregular and sometimes unclear conditions of the experiment. In I.A.Yeganova' opinion (Yeganova 1984, p.10), numerous pheno ms ena observed apart from N.A.Kozyrev exhibit the influence of background nonequilibrium processes on detectors, similar to those observed by Kozyrev: "...the so-called kinetobaric effect (Peschka 1979), J.Pichardi' experimental results (25-year observations s of the bismuth chloride precipitation rate) and those due to S.V.Tromp (observations of erythrocyte precipitation rate) (Meksi 1982), flicker noise (Zhvirblis 1983; Gertsenshtein 1983), the observation of torsion balance oscillation period increase during the 1970 total solar eclipse (Saxel and Allen 1970) and the similar results of metrologists V.S.Kazachok, O.V.Khavroshkin and V.V.Tsyplakov (1977) who repeated these experiments during the 1976 solar eclipse, the results of A.Shapovalov' (1973) three-year observations of ph os tomultiplier dark current", see also a discussion of some of these effects in N.A.Kozyrev' s works (1971, 1982). We would like to add that Kozyrev' flows may turn out to be the universal co ss mophysical cause leading to correlations between macroscopic fluctuations which show itself by equally shaped histograms describing quite different processes, from biochemical reactions to radioactive decays, in simultaneous experiments separated sometimes by thousands of kilometers (Shnol et al. 1985). Moreover, the experiments carried out by Kozyrev and his colleagues were to a large extent dedicated to direct detection (and application for astronomical measurements) of non-electromagnetic flows from planets, stars, galaxies, stellar clusters and nebulae. It should be noted that it is very hard to combine N.A.Kozyrev' views with the s existing physical outlook. The effect magnitudes in Kozyrev' experiments are small: the s additional forces in his mechanical experiments are just about 10-4 - 10-5 of the weight of a body under study; in a mechanical detector operation the relative change of measured quantities due to Kozyrev' flow can be as much as 10 -6 - 10-7 of the forces already active s in the system. Here is how N.A.Kozyrev illustrates the difficulties of discovering hidden additional stellar energy sources, connected with the local smallness of the effects: "We get to a situation like that of a physicist in a laboratory situated deep in space, far from the Earth. He would hardly come across the forces of gravity in his experiments. However, these are just the forces which determine not only the dynamics of celestial bodies but also their internal structure. The similarity is that a star is a surprisingly perfect thermos, despite the enormous energy losses. For instance, the solar substance, having the temperature of about ten million degrees, can be cooled, according to the Helmholtz-Kelvin scale, by just one degree in three years! The trifling energy inflow needed to compensate such an expenditure, could hardly attract anybody' attention in laboratory conditions" (Kozyrev s 1977, p.210). "The experimental results show that the organising property of time exerts a very small influence on systems, compared with the usual, destructive course of their de4


velopment. Therefore it is not surprising that this... entity has been missed in our system of scientific knowledge. However, being small, it is distributed everywhere in nature and only the possibility of its being stored is needed" (Kozyrev 1982, p.71). In general, the effects observed by Kozyrev could be explained by more prosaic factors than the "time flow" (for instance, by convective flows, cooling or heating effects, induced electric or magnetic fields, etc.). N.A.Kozyrev tried to analyse the possible role of alternative factors in his experiments, for instance, he dedicated a whole article to possible mechanisms causing different effects in vibrating bodies being weighed at a beam balance. However, his opponents can always find objections connected with some unstudied factors. Moreover, a reader always rightly expects that a thorough analysis of errors, which are able to turn the observed effects into vexing artefacts, is the author ' trouble. At any s rate, by now neither a concrete disproof of N.A.Kozyrev' experimental results exists, nor s their consistent explanation by common physical factors. There is just a reasonable doubt concerning the unambiguity of interpretations of the experimental data. Judging from the existing publications, by now some of N.A.Kozyrev' exper is ments have been reproduced and confirmed by a group of Novosibirsk experimentalists (Lavrentyev, Yeganova et al. 1990; Lavrentyev, Gusev et al. 1990; Lavrentyev et al. 1991, 1992). Besides, G.Hayasaka and S.Tekeychi (1989) discovered certain effects, similar to Kozyrev' , while weighing gyroscopes (probably they had no idea of the results of their s Russian colleague). The work of the Japanese experimentalists caused a tough controversy in physical journals. Neither French (Quinn and Picard 1990), American (Faller et al. 1990; Nitschke and Wilmarth 1990), nor other Japanese opponents (Imanishi et al. 1991) observed the gyroscope weight lessening effects like those detected by Kozyrev, Hayasaka and Takeuchi. Kozyrev' experiment methodology (see the details in Section 2.11 of the s present chapter) required that the weighed gyro necessarily take part in some additional irreversible process like vibration, heat conduction or electric current transition. G.Hayasaka and S.Takeuchi stressed that in their experiment a mechanical vibration of the gyroscope took place and vibration damping was provided by "a pillow of foamy poly urethane laid under the gyro". Though, in the experiments where Kozyrev' effects were s not observed, both spring suspensions (Faller et al. 1990) and polyurethane foam (Quinn and Picard 1990) have been used for vibration damping; the other two papers do not mention any irreversible process. Apparently the intention to repeat or further develop Kozyrev' difficult exper is ments is prevented by the comprehension difficulty of Kozyrev' works, where unfort us nately no attempt was made to adapt his original ideas and terms to the existing standards and traditions of the scientific establishment. N.A.Kozyrev' scientific views repeatedly turned out to be in sharp contradiction s with his colleagues' paradigms. That was unable to prevent him from making outstanding discoveries in astronomy, in particular, he predicted and discovered lunar volcanism. Maybe, the intuition did not deceive our extraordinary contemporary when he predicted the substantial nature of time?

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2. Kozyrev's detectors and observations of the time flow (some experimental results) 2.1. Torsion balance "... The t o r sio n balance ver sio n wit h st r o ngly unequal ar ms... has t ur ned o ut t o be per fect . The suspensio n po int was placed near t he big weight who se mass was cho sen t o be abo ut t en t imes as big as t hat o f t he smaller o ne, att ached t o t he lo nger ar m o f t he beam. This lo nger ar m is a lo ng flexible po int er wit h a lo ading o f abo ut 1 gr am at it s edge. The beam was suspended o n a capr o n filament o f 30 micr o met er diamet er and 5-10cm lo ng. The who le syst em was placed under a glass cap able t o be evacuat ed. A met al net surr o unding t he cap pr o t ect ed t he syst em fr o m po ssible elect r o magnet ic influences... Any irr ever sible pr o cess being carr ied o ut in t he neighbo r hoo d o f t he balance, caused a r o t at io n o f t he po int er eit her t o t he pr o cess, o r in t he o ppo sit e dir ect io n, depending o n t he char act er o f t he pr o cess. Fo r inst ance, coo ling o f a pr evio usly heat ed bo dy caused po int er r o t at io n t o t hat bo dy, while a bo dy being heat ed deflect ed t he po int er t o t he o ppo sit e side. The po int er t ur ned o ut t o be affect ed by a gr eat var iet y o f irr ever sible pr o cesses: salt disso lving, bo dy co mpr essio n o r st r et ching, simple mixing o f liquid o r dr y subst ances and even t he wo r k o f a human head" (Ko z yr ev 1971, pp.130-131). "The o bser ved balance r o t at io ns wer e as big as t ens o f d egr ees, co rr espo nding t o fo r ces o f abo ut 10-3 -10-4 dyne. Thus, as t he beam weighed a few gr ams, it s r o t at io ns wer e caused by fo r ces o f 10-6-10-7 o f t he fo r ces act ing in t he syst em" (Ko zyr ev 1977, p.217). Astronomical observation with a torsion balance "were carried out at the coude f ocus of the telescope. In the course of such observations the balance could be at rest at a reliable foundation. A star was projected through the glass lid of the can onto its bottom, near the longer arm of the beam, and then its light was screened by a black paper... Some celestial objects indeed caused reliable, repeatedly confirmed beam deflections. Figure 1 shows an example of a detected balance deflection in an observation of the star Cas by the telescope PM-700. The columns labeled "0" mark the time intervals when a stellar action on the balance was removed. Although the observations were accomplished in rather favourable conditions, the zero point drift of the balance due to the ambient processes was very significant. However, on the background of the drift, the star ' action is s seen quite distinctly, causing balance deflection of 5°. Approximately the same effect was demonstrated by the famous X-ray source Cyg X-1.

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Fig.1. Action of the star Cas on a tor sion balance, as obser ved by the telescope PM 700 at Pulkovo Mar ch 15, 1976. Label "0" is descr ibed in the text. (Kozyr ev 1977.)

Now let us give a summary of all the astronomical observations carried out using the torsion balance. The summary includes only repeatedly observed objects. 1. Objects showing no balance deflection, = 0°. Stars: Agl, Aur, Boo, Cyg, Her, Ori, Tau, Cem, Cas, 61 Cyg. Cepheids: Agl, S Sge. Pulsar CP 1133. Other objects: globular cluster M13; open clusters: Crib, x Per; Lyra and Orion nebulae; galaxies M82 and NGC 1275, the Seyfert one; the planet Saturn. 2. Small deflections, : 2-3°. Galaxies: M81, Virgo cluster NGC 4594, the Andromeda nebula. 3. Significant deflections, : 3-5°. CMa, Leo, Cas, white dwarfs: W 1346, Hert z3, z43; the source Cyg X-1 and the Galactic center. 4. A big deflection of = 9° (averaged from 14 observations) was given by CMi. 5. Variable deflections. The Moon showed extremely irregular deflections, independent of its phase, between 0 and 4°. Venus showed still bigger variations of , from 0 to 12°" (Kozyrev 1977, pp.218-219). Instead of a beam with unequal arms, one could use a continual homogeneous disk, suspended by its center, in a torsion balance. "A thick shield was put on the glass lid of the can, with an opening over the disk suspension point. Due to such a protection, the process could affect only the disk suspension point. When the processes are carried out,... the disk rotates... For successful experiments disks as homogeneous as possible are needed. Therefore we employed light disks of pressed, unrolled cardboard. Even a line on the disk was inadmissible, so for fixing the rotations we used just a small mark on its edge" (Kozyrev 1977, p.220). "Acetone evaporation over the suspension point caused disk rot a7


tion of a few degrees. We have been unable to achieve a clear understanding of the action of this instrument." (Kozyrev 1982, p.65). "Probably a disk is a better instrument for astronomical observ ations than a nonsymmetric torsion balance: when working with a disk, a star is to be projected upon the unambiguously determined point of its suspension" (Kozyrev 1977, p.220). "During an eclipse the lunar surface is for a short time, about a hundred of minutes, cooled down from 100°C to -120°C and afterwards heated to the previous temperature... Such observations were carried out during the partial (but with a big phase = 0.86) lunar eclipse on 13-14

Fig.2. Par tial lunar eclipse of Mar ch 13-14, 1979. Plot of disk r otation vs. wor ld time (Kozyr ev 1982). 1. Beginning of the penumbr a eclipse; 2. Beginning of full-shade eclipse; 3. Maximum phase; 4. End of full-shade eclipse; 5. Beginning exit fr om the penumbr a.

March 1979... During the eclipse the disk was in a sufficiently stable environment of a semi-underground room. The disk positions were detected every 5-10 minutes" (Kozyrev 1982, p.65). Figure 2 "shows the position angles of a mark on the disk. The graphs show that the counts began changing indeed after the maximum eclipse phase had passed, when the parts of lunar surface, freed from the Earth' shade, started to be heated. The second s change in the disk counts was observed when the Moon was leaving the semi-shade, the normal solar irradiation being restored at the lunar surface" (Kozyrev 1982, p.65). "The laboratory experiments with plants should be described in more detail. The experiments were carried out on non-symmetric torsion systems where pointers made of jasmine, bamboo and glass were suspended by capron filaments, and also on a torsion disk of glossy paper. The systems were confined to tin cylindrical cans with hermetically mounted glass lids for observation. Many plants growing on the campus of Pulkovo observatory and picked in different seasons (apple-tree, pear-tree, linden, chestnut, clover, dandelion and others) took part in the experiments. The experiment methodology was the following. The plants were brought to the laboratory, laid down on a table, each one separately, for a certain time, and after that laid by a top or a cut near the torsion balance at a spacing of about 30° from the pointer direction (or from a mark on the disk), at either side from it consecutively... In the overwhelming majority of the experiments the plants caused deflections of the torsion balance and the disk, but it was impossible to repeat the results. The values of these effects varied both in magnitude and in sign. The reference process, namely, acetone evaporation from a piece of cotton wool, always led to a repulsive pointer
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deflection and to a clockwise disk rotation... The effect magnitudes from the plants varied from season to season from 1-2° to nearly a round trip, with different effect signs... At the first instant after being picked up a plant... causes a pointer deflection away from it. The effect sign is the same for the cut and the top, while the quantitative values slightly differ. In the second period... the stem continues to repel the torsion balance pointer with nearly the same strength and intensity (always steadily and moderately), while the top begins to attract it very actively, sometimes with pulsating pushes... For instance, a blossoming apple-tree branch before petal dropping can cause an attraction effect of 250-300° for 5 to 10 minutes. The usual repelling effect of an apple-tree branch ranges from 10° to 30° and is observed for the same time... In 1983 the Pulkovo apple-trees exhibited an autumn increased activity period. It is known, however, that it is just the period when apple-trees lay the basis for the following year harvest. The following year apple harvest in Pulkovo was very rich indeed. Autumn observations of 1984 did not reveal such an activity of appletrees, and next summer only some trees yielded an apple harvest... It is remarkable that a significant plant number increases actually... did not result in an increased effect." "It has been established that... common human activity only slightly changes a measurement system state... A sick person comes into active interaction with measurement systems, moreover, this interaction begins much earlier than the person notices his disease. In some cases N.A.Kozyrev and I found out that we had caught cold one or two days earlier than we felt unwell and the body temperature rose. The measurement systems are especially strongly affected by a person in emotional excitement. For instance, N.A.Kozyrev was able to deflect a torsion balance pointer by 40° or more when reading his favourite "Faust". Meanwhile, as a rule, mathematical calculations did not cause pointer defle ctions." These quotations have been taken from V.V.Nasonov' talk entitled "Time of s physics and the life of Nature" (pp.3, 4, 15) pronounced on 6th December 1985 at Mo scow Seminar on the studies of time in natural sciences at Moscow University. V.V.Nasonov has been an active participant of N.A.Kozyrev' experiments and his closest cos worker. As marked by N.A.Kozyrev, "V.V.Nasonov' work imparted a high degree of rel is ability to the experiments..." (Kozyrev 1971, p.119). 2.2. Resistors "A resistor placed near a common laboratory process, such as acetone evaporation from a piece of cotton wool, sugar dissolving in water, etc., exhibited a relative resistance variation in the sixth or fifth significant figure, or even in the fourth one for a resistor with an especially high temperature coefficient" (Kozyrev 1982, p.62).

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Fig.3. Obser ved conductor r esistance var iation under the action of the star Leo, Satur n and Mar s (Kozyr ev 1977).

"... A simple physical system was found... resting on variations of... electrical r esistance in conductors. These variations were registered... by a galvanometer in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In order to observe the maximum bridge sensitivity condition, all its four resistances were taken equal to the galvanometer internal resistance... The bridge was fed by a stabilized voltage of 30V, so that a single galvanometer scale division corresponded to a resistance variation of 1.4·10-2Ohm, which makes a fractional variation of 3·10-6. To double the effect, the resistors, being posed crosswise in the circuit, were placed side by side, forming two couples, each occupying the area of 15в15mm2. To avoid temperature impacts, the resistors were placed in a cardboard tube with wooden stoppers, put into three duraluminium tubes, each with duraluminium lids. Openings of 15mm in diameter were drilled in the metal tubes against the couples of resistors and glued up with paper. In these conditions the galvanometer counts were stable enough even in the tower of the telescope. All the processes emitting time caused resistance reduction, while the opposite processes raised it within a few scale divisions, corresponding to fractional changes of 1 to 10ppm" (Kozyrev 1977, pp.222-223). Let us make things clear following Kozyrev (1977, pp.214-215): "The processes increasing entropy where they are happening, emit time. These are, for instance, ice melting, liquid evaporation, dissolution of substances in water and even plant withering. The contrary processes, such
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as cooling of bodies and water freezing, absorb time...". "Astronomical observations with that instrument were carried out on the MTM-500 telescope in 1976. The image of a star was projected onto the paper of one of the openings of the tube. As usual, the stellar light was removed by a thin shield. Figure 3 depicts the results of three nights of observations... The figure shows that Saturn did not cause any effect, as it has been the case in measurements with a torsion balance... Unlike that, the star Leo, in accord with the previous observations, exhibited a distinct effect on the instrument. Mars, like other Earth-group planets, yields a variable effect..." (Kozyrev 1977,