Äîêóìåíò âçÿò èç êýøà ïîèñêîâîé ìàøèíû. Àäðåñ îðèãèíàëüíîãî äîêóìåíòà : http://star.arm.ac.uk/preprints/386c.pdf Äàòà èçìåíåíèÿ: Wed Sep 17 18:48:25 2003 Äàòà èíäåêñèðîâàíèÿ: Mon Oct 1 22:25:26 2012 Êîäèðîâêà: Ïîèñêîâûå ñëîâà: molecular cloud

Astronomy & Astrophysics manuscript no. (DOI: will be inserted by hand later)

September 25, 2002

Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources
Dirk Froebrich , Michael D. Smith , Klaus W. Hodapp and Jochen Eisloffel ¨
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Thuringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg, Sternwarte 5, D-07778 Tautenburg, Germany ¨ Armagh Observatory, College Hill, Armagh BT61 9DG, Northern Ireland University of Hawaii, Institute for Astronomy, 640 N. Aohoku Place, Hilo, HI 96720, USA

Received sooner / Accepted later Abstract. We present far-infrared maps and spectroscopy for several deeply embedded protostellar objects from data acquired with the ISO instruments PHOT and LWS. Spectral energy distributions for Cep E, HH 211-MM, IC 1396 W, L 1157, L 1211 and RNO 15 FIR indicate that these are relatively cold Class 0 sources. Several previously undetected deeply embedded sources are found in the vicinity of our targets. We determine temperatures and luminosities of seven objects and locate them on a L -T diagram ­ the equivalent to a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for protostars. Their masses and ages, according to their location on tracks derived from an/our evolutionary model, are derived. L 1211 and Cep E appear to be intermediate mass objects which will reach final masses of about 3 M , while the other sources are in or below the solar mass range. The derived ages of 15000 to 30000 yr are consistent with their current Class 0 state. A comparison of the luminosity of the associated outflows in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of molecular hydrogen with the source properties (bolometric luminosity, bolometric temperature and envelope mass) of 15 Class 0 sources shows no statistically significant correlations. Nevertheless, the data are consistent with a scheme in which the outflow strength and protostar evolve simultaneously. The relationship is partially disguised, however, by the local properties of the surrounding material, the extinction and short-term flux variability. Key words. Stars: evolution ­ Stars: formation ­ Infrared: stars
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1. Introduction
In the earliest stages of star formation ­ the so-called Class 0 and Class 1 phases ­ protostars are still deeply embedded in their parental molecular cloud cores. This material absorbs almost all of the emitted radiation of the star in the optical and the near-infrared. The spectral energy distribution (SED) of Class 0 protostars therefore peaks at about 40­100 m, the wavelength of the maximum of a blackbody at 30­80 K. Hence, direct observations of protostars have to be carried out in the far-infrared and in the (sub-)mm wavelength range. Sub-mm and millimeter observations of some of the sources investigated here have been carried out e.g. by Lefloch et al. (1996), Ladd & Hodapp (1997), Chini et al. (2001), Gueth et al. (1997), Motte & Andre ´ (2001) and Gueth & Guilloteau (1999). The ISO satellite (Kessler et al. 1996) with its PHOT instrument had the capacity to measure the broad-band continuum in the far-infrared. Such observations, covering the peak region of the SED of protostars, help to yield some of the major properties of these objects such as their temperature, the sub-mm slope of their SED, the optical depth and the solid angle under
Send offprint requests to: Dirk Froebrich Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.


which they emit. The latter two cannot be disentangled due to the limited spatial resolution of the ISOPHOT instrument. With higher resolution observations, however, (e.g. SCUBA) we can determine the solid angle under which an object is seen independently and that way infer its optical depth. These parameters, together with the distance, enable us to calculate the total (L ) and sub-mm (L ) luminosities of each object. We may then decide whether an object really is of Class 0 or not by /L ratio (Andre et al. 2000). Finally, ´ determining the L by placing the inferred values on a temperature ­ bolometric luminosity diagram ­ the equivalent to a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for protostars (Myers et al. 1998) ­ we are able for the first time to determine the (model dependent) ages and masses of these sources directly. Bipolar outflows invariably accompany Class 0 sources: strong inflow and outflow of material are concurrent. We thus wish to probe how the mass outflow rate is related to the mass accretion rate onto the protostar. The outflowing material interacts with the ambient medium through radiative shocks. Thus, the luminosity of the outflow may be correlated with some of the source properties (e.g. the bolometric source luminosity), which depend on the mass accretion rate. Therefore, we measured the luminosities of the outflows of 15 Class 0 sources in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of molecular hydrogen. This is usually the strongest and easiest line to observe in near-infrared spectra of shocked molecular hydrogen, and due to the short cooling time
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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources Table 2. Observation log of the NIR observations. The used telescopes, detectors and filters are listed. H indicates the narrow line filter, centered at the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H . The narrow band filter at a wavelength of 2.140 m (continuum) is labeled with 2140. The number of pictures is separately indicated for each filter. In some cases the investigated objects fill only a part of the whole obtained mosaic (esp. HH 212). The observing time is given per single image.


Table 1. Log of our ISOPHOT and LWS observations.
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2. Observations and Data Analysis
We used the ISO satellite to obtain ISOPHOT minimaps of six Class 0 sources and LWS full grating spectra for three of them. All observations are listed in Table 1.

2.1. ISOPHOT data

Minimaps were taken for six objects (Cep E, HH 211-MM, IC 1396 W, L 1157, L 1211 and RNO 15 FIR) with ISOPHOT in its PHT22 mode by single pointing and moving of the telescope by one (C100) or half (C200) of a detector pixel. We used four filters (60, 100, 160 and 200 m). For 60 and 100 m, the 2.2. LWS data C100 detector (3 3 array of Ge:Ga) was used to create a 5 3 For three objects (L 1157, Cep E and HH 211) we have full pixel minimap with a pixel size of 45 46 . The maps thus grating medium-resolution LWS01 scans, which cover a wavecover a field of view of 230 135 . For the two longer wave1 http://www.iso.vilspa.esa.es/manuals/HANDBOOK/V/pht hb/ lengths 7 3 mosaics with a pixel size of 45 90 were ob¨ ©© ¨ ©© ©© ¨ ©© ©©


tained using the C200 detector (2 2 array of stressed Ge:Ga), covering thus a field of view of 315 270 . For details on the instrument and the used Astronomical Observing Templates (AOT) see the ISO Handbook, Volume V: PHT -- The Imaging Photo Polarimeter1 and Lemke et al. (1996). The data were reduced with the ISOPHOT Interactive Analysis (PIA V9.1) software. Flux measurements in the ISOPHOT maps were carried out in two different ways: 1) Point spread function (PSF) photometry using PSF fractions provided by Laureijs (1999) was done for the C100 maps. We do not provide PSF photometry for the C200 detector since the given PSF fractions by Laureijs (1999) are only for the whole C200 pixel and our maps have a sampling of half a pixel in one direction. 2) "Aperture" photometry was obtained for all filters of both C100 and C200 detectors. Here we attributed each pixel in the maps either to 'object' or to 'background' manually, then summed up both and subtracted 'background' from 'object' to obtain its flux. Since at 60 and 100 m, i.e. for the C100 data, we were able to do photometry with both methods, we have a means of estimating the consistency of both. All measured fluxes, including the available IRAS fluxes of our objects, and the background level in the maps are provided in Table 3.
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of H it is a good tracer of the present interaction of the outflow with the surrounding material. These H luminosities are then compared with various source properties to investigate possible correlations. Modelling of Class 0 protostars remains in its infancy. Schemes now exist which yield evolutionary tracks, based on relating gas accretion to the dusty envelope (Myers et al.1998) and jet thrust to gas accretion (Bontemps et al. 1995, Saraceno et al. 1996, Smith 1999, 2000 and Andre 2000). We combine ´ these schemes here in order to test if the simplest assumptions, such as a spherical envelope and a single accreting object, are feasible. In this paper, we first present our far-infrared ISO maps and spectroscopy, and then summarize the data analysis and how we derive temperatures and luminosities (Sect. 2). In Sect. 3, we present our results, and comment on individual objects. A discussion of age and mass determination, and the general relatioship to the outflows is contained in Sect. 4. A framework within which the data can be interpreted is then put forward (Sect. 5).
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2140 202, 368 2140 32, 27 K' 247, 253 K' 64, 32 K' 34, 14 K' 3112, 1487 K' 400, 149 K' 120, 60 24 41 17 42

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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

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2.3. Near-infrared H obser vations
For the measurement of the luminosities of the outflows in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of molecular hydrogen at 2.122 m near-infrared images were taken in several observing campaigns and at various telescopes. The complete list of all observations is provided in Table 2. We observed the objects in two filters to distinguish between line and continuum emission. Due to the angular size of the objects, the single images had to be arranged into large mosaics. This was done using the IRAF package DIMSUM. The whole procedure includes flatfielding, cosmic ray hit removal and sky subtraction as well as re-centering and mosaicing. For a higher astrometric accuracy we used all available stars in the field for the re-centering. The photometric calibration was achieved by the observation of faint near-infrared standards with an accuracy of 10%. For the flux measurements we subtracted the scaled continuum image from the emission line image to measure only the flux in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H .
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Fig. 1. ( , ) plane for the blackbody fit of the Cep E photometry. The fit with the measured fluxes is marked by a cross. Circles indicate fits using fluxes which deviate at most by 0.5 , and the small dots represent fits using fluxes with a maximum deviation of 1.0 from the measurements.
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for each filter separately using the filter transmission curves . We fit a gray- and a blackbody ( ) to the measurements for each object. To do this, we computed a grid of 2.4. Determination of T and L graybodys (see Eq. 1) in which we varied the three parameThe observed broad-band continuum fluxes of our sources al- ters temperature, optical depth at 100 m and sub-millimeter low us to fit a spectral energy distribution to the measurements slope of the SED. We varied the temperature between 15 and and so to infer source properties (e.g. bolometric luminosity 80 K, in steps of 0.125 K, the optical depth at 100 m from 0.09 and temperature). To fit the spectral energy distribution we used to 11.4, in logarithmic intervals of 1.5, and the sub-millimeter slope from 0.0 to 3.0, in steps of 0.1. The so determined graythe following equation for the flux density of our objects: bodys were convolved with the filter curves of the four used fil(1) ter bands (see Eq. 4). Then the solid angle was determined where is the Planck function, the solid angle of by computing the deviation of the model points from the measurements and minimising this value (see Eq. 3). Finally the the source and the optical depth. is set as of the fit to the measurements was determined, scaled by the errors of the measurements, and the parameters leading to (2) were selected. We find that the optical depth the minimal where is in m, the optical depth at 100 m ( ) is a free has almost no influence on the shape of the graybody curve, but parameter, and is the sub-millimeter slope of the spectral en- only on the absolute flux level, which on the other hand mainly . So, we selected only fits with equal to 1.0. ergy distributio. The lowest of the fit is obtained when the depends on Nevertheless the two parameters and are connected solid angle of the object is determined by by to first approximation. Thus, the determined values for are only valid under the assumption (3) If sub-mm or millimetre observations yield other source sizes, the optical depth at 100 m can be constrained. where indicates the various used filters, the flux mea- Note that the size given here is the size of the protostellar ensurements in these filters, the error of the measurements. velope where the optical depth at 100 m is unity. It may difis determined by fer from the envelope sizes obtained of optically thin emission by sub-mm or millimeter measurements (e.g. Motte & Andre ´ (2001) and Chini et al. (2001)). (4) The above described method to fit the SED was first applied only to the measurements at out four ISOPHOT wavelengths. All infered object properties listed in Table 4 are determined 2 http://www.iso.vilspa.esa.es/manuals/HANDBOOK/IV/lws hb/ using only the ISOPHOT data. In addition, we could extend


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Table 3. Far-infrared fluxes for all detected objects, measured with ISOPHOT, and IRAS, as well as SCUBA and IRAM 30-m points from the literature. Columns C ..C give the fluxes above the background measured with aperture photometry, columns C and C the fluxes obtained by PSF fitting. For comparison we list the IRAS fluxes at 12, 25, 60 and 100 m in columns I ..I . S and S give SCUBA fluxes at 450 and 850 m from the literature. I is the flux at 1.3 mm. All fluxes are in Jansky. In the B ..B columns we list the background level in the ISOPHOT maps at 60, 100, 160 and 200 m in MJy sr . The * signs mark the newly detected objects in our maps.
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Table 4. Best blackbody and graybody fit results (explanation in text), as well as the inferred bolometric and sub-mm luminosities, from our ISOPHOT data points. T is the fitted temperature for the blackbody, T the temperature of the graybody. For and see text. The optical depth at 100 m was fixed to 1.0, since it did not show significant influence on the shape of the graybody curve. The gives the error of the fit from the measurements scaled with the errors of the measurements. The explanation of the determination of the errors is given in the text. is given in 1 10 sr (equal to 4.25 ). The sub-mm luminosity L is the luminosity of the object at wavelengths larger than 350 m, and the bolometric temperature T is the temperature of a blackbody with the same luminosity as the object. The * signs mark newly discovered objects. Due to the photometry problems with these objects, we do not present errors here.
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Our best fitting results are given in Table 4 together with the fit errors. In some cases it was not possible or not useful to also do a fit for the newly detected objects in our maps, since they The determined graybody fits are then integrated to obare at the edge of the map and so we are missing an unknown tain the total luminosities of the sources. By integrating only part of their flux. Some objects are detected only at the C200 wavelengths since they are outside the slightly smaller maps at at wavelengths larger than 350 m we obtain the sub-mm luminosities L , which can be compared to the total lumithe C100 wavelengths. nosities L to decide whether an object is a Class 0 source A determination of the fit errors cannot be obtained ana- (Andre et al. 2000). Both values, L and L ´ /L , are given lytically. Therefore, we varied the PHOT measurements within in Table 4. When the ratio L /L exceeds 0.5%, then the their one sigma error box (five equidistant values; object is counted as Class 0. This is equivalent to the mass ra; n = 0, 1, 2) and computed for each of the com- tio M /M being larger than unity (see Andre et al. 2000 and ´ binations the best fitting parameters. This results in an area of references therein). The given bolometric temperatures T are the parameter space into which the error boxes are mapped. As the temperatures of a blackbody with the same luminosity as an example, we show in Fig. 1 this area in the ( , ) plane the graybody.
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for Cep E. The errors given in Table 4 are read off such diagrams for each of our objects. The same procedure was applied also for the other parameters (L , L ).

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3. Results
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For the three objects for which we obtained a LWS spectrum, we can compare the PHOT flux with the LWS continuum. While the LWS continuum is a sum of the continuum of the source and background radiation, the PHOT maps give the true flux of the source. So, the difference between LWS and PHOT should be the background radiation (e.g. from cold dust). In all three cases (Cep E, L 1157 and HH 211-MM) we clearly see evidence for such a background emission (see Figs. 2 ­ 5). In the following subsections we discuss details of the results for the individual objects.

3.1. Cep E
Cep E is the brightest object in our sample. Our ISOPHOT maps at the four wavelengths of 60, 100, 160 and 200 m are shown in the lower part of Fig. 2, all at the same scale and orientation. Photometry from these maps, and the LWS spectrum, are displayed above the maps. In addition, we plot the bestfitting graybody and blackbody fits to these data as solid and dotted lines, respectively. These fits were used to deconvolve the measurements and the filter transmission curve for converting the measured fluxes to flux densities at the central wavelengths of the used filter. For Cep E, the fluxes determined with PSF and "aperture" photometry were consistent. Deviations of the LWS continuum from the ISOPHOT data exist for wavelengths shorter than 100 and longer than 150 m. This might be evidence for warm and cold dust. The deduced temperature is 35.3 K for the best graybody fit, which also gives = 0.9 and = 3.1 10 sr. On the other hand, under the assumption that the source were a perfect blackbody ( = 0.0) we deduce a temperature of 41.1 K and = 1.5 10 sr. This fit is worse than the graybody, however. The PSF photometry shows that the object is a point source, perfectly aligned in the middle of our map, and no other embedded object is detected.
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Our observations of Cep E, HH 211-MM, IC 1396 W, L 1157, L 1211 and RNO 15 FIR were carried out at their nominal IRAS positions. In our ISOPHOT maps (shown in Figs. 2 ­ 8) we detected more objects that were actually targetted. In four cases other unexpected embedded objects or bright diffuse continuum emission are found. For L 1211 no object was detected at the nominal IRAS position, but there were two other sources discovered in the maps. The measured fluxes in all filters, including IRAS fluxes, are given in Table 3. The discrepancies of the fluxes between PSF and "aperture" photometry are for various reasons: First, it is a major problem to determine which pixel contributes to which object when doing "aperture" photometry. A second problem is the determination of the background. When using the PSF fitting method, the background is determined automatically (provided that the object is a point source and in the centre of a pixel), while for "aperture" photometry one has to choose background pixels. Concerning the absolute calibration errors for the two detectors of 15 and 10% for the C100 and C200 detector, respectively, and an additional error of 20% due to background uncertainties, we find that both flux determination methods lead to consistent results in almost all cases. All our investigated objects are clearly of Class 0 type according to the L /L criterion. We cannot decide whether the newly discovered objects in our maps are of Class 0, because they are situated at the edges of the ISOPHOT maps. Due to the different sizes of the maps we certainly underestimate their fluxes at 60 and 100 m, which alters their derived spectral energy distributions in the way that they seem to be proportionally brighter at the longer wavelengths, but to an unknown extent. The ISOPHOT and the IRAS fluxes are consistent within the errors only for Cep E. For all other objects the IRAS point source catalogue gives values which are a factor of about 1.8 brighter. Apart from the fact that the errors for the IRAS data are quite large and in some cases only upper limits are given, the main reason for the differences is that the resolution of the IRAS satellite was not sufficient to resolve close-by sources. Only Cep E and L 1157 seem not to have other young objects in their immediate vicinity, and these are the two objects where the IRAS and ISOPHOT fluxes match the best. Cep E is a known double source (Moro-Mart´ et al. 2001) which cannot in be resolved by IRAS nor ISOPHOT. For these reasons and the still fairly large errors in the flux measurements, no investigation of the time evolution of the fluxes of these young sources over the 14 year time span ( 0.1% of the age of our objects) between IRAS and ISO is possible. The PSF photometry suggests that all the objects are seen as point sources for the ISOPHOT detectors. When subtracting the fitted PSF, no systematic residuals are visible in the difference images. Thus, the angular size of the sources is at maximum 10 , a quarter of the FHWM of the PSF. This leads to an upper limit for the source solid angles of about 300 . This fact is supported by the inferred solid angles of 1 ­ 4 10 sr (4 ­ 15 ), which is less than one percent of the pixel size of the C100 detector.
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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources
120
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3.2. L 1157
Our PHOT maps of L 1157, and the integrated photometry obtained from these maps, are presented in Fig. 4. This figure also shows our LWS spectrum of L 1157, as well as black and graybody fits to the photometry. L 1157 is a point source with a derived temperature of about 25.3 K, = 1.5 and = 4.3 10 sr. With the blackbody assumption we find a temperature of 30.4 K and = 1.4 10 sr. There are small deviations of the LWS continuum from the PHOT photometry over the whole wavelength range. This could be due to diffuse emission from warm and cold dust, or reflecting uncertainties in the calibration of ISOPHOT. PSF photometry shows that the object is not at the centre of our map, but rather shifted slightly to the east. This could be a hint for another source nearby or a slight mispointing of the telescope due to the limited accuracy of the IRAS coordinates. Since nothing is known in the literature about a second source, we attributed all the flux to L 1157. PSF fitting to the C200 maps to confirm this was not possible,
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because of the unknown PSF for our half-pixel sampling in the north-south direction. Also the inferred size of the source ( ) does not support the presence of an additional object. L 1157 was observed with SCUBA and IRAM 30-m by Chini et al. (2001) also. They give two different measurements for the fluxes, one for the central source only (10 aperture), and one for the source and the whole envelope (a 55 by 30 elliptical aperture). The fluxes are 6.0, 0.9, 0.4 Jy (source) and 25.3, 3.8, 1.3 Jy (envelope) for 450, 850 and 1300 m, respectively. Including these fluxes (source only) to fit the SED, we get a quite good result ( = 0.38) and similar values for the = 4.3 10 sr. source properties: T = 25.3 K, = 1.6 and If we use the fluxes for the envelope we get a much worse fit and it seems that we have a second cool component in the SED. Thus, the ISOPHOT data reflect the emission of the source itself and not the cold extended envelope.

3.3. HH 211-MM
Our PHOT maps, derived photometry and a LWS spectrum of the HH 211 region are displayed in Fig. 5. HH 211-MM at the centre of our maps is the dominant source at 60 and 100 m. IC 348 IR, probably a heavily embedded B-star (Strom et al. 1974, McCaughrean et al. 1994), is visible to its northeast (marked by a cross). At longer wavelengths, a very cold source HH 211 FIRS2 further north becomes visible and even dominant (marked by a circle). This may be the object IC 348 MMS, found by Eisl ¨ fel et al. (2002) to be the source of of a newly detected outflow north of HH 211. Thus, the fluxes of HH 211 FIRS2 given in Table 3 are a superposition of two different objects. The C and C measurements are dominated by IC 348 IR, while C and C are dominated by IC 348 MMS. Therefore no further investigation of the SED of one of these objects was possible.
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Nevertheless Cep E is at least a double source, separated by 1.4 arcseconds, as shown by the 222 GHz observations of Moro­ Mart´ et al. (2001). in Cep E was observed by Chini et al. (2001) with SCUBA (450 and 850 m) and the IRAM 30-m telescope (1.3 mm). They measured the fluxes in an aperture with a radius of 40 , comparable to the size of our ISOPHOT pixels and give fluxes of 43.7, 4.1 and 1.0 Jy for 450, 850 m and 1.3 mm, respectively. When we include these values into the fit of the SED we get about the same values for the source properties: T = 34.8 K, = 1.0 and = 2.8 10 sr (see Fig. 3). With = 2.0 the fit is not good, mainly due to the notable deviation of the 450 m point. This may indicate a second cold dust component in the SED. The temperature of about 35 K contradicts the value of 60 K given by Ladd and Hodapp (1997). They used the IRAS data (12, 25, 60 and 100 m) and an 800 m point to fit the bolometric temperature. These data do not cover the emission maximum of the source at about 160 m (see Table 3). For an accurate determination of the temperature, however, the position of the maximum of the SED is needed.
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Fig. 5. As Fig. 2, but for HH 211-MM. The best graybody has the parameters T = 20.3 K, = 1.8, = 15.4 10 sr and the best fitting blackbody has a temperature of T = 24.5 K and = 3.5 10 sr. The position of IC 348 IR is indicated by a + sign, and a circle marks the source IC 348 MMS, found by Eisloffel et al. (2002). ¨
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For HH 211-MM, we find large differences of the fluxes 40 at 60 and 100 m obtained with PSF and "aperture" pho.. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . tometry. These differences are due to the other sources in....... . . . .. . . . . . .. .... fluencing the background determination. In addition, there is .. . . 20 ... a lot of diffuse background emission present, which can be ... .. . .. seen in Fig. 5 as the difference between the PHOT photome... ... . .. try and the LWS continuum. So, it is very difficult to deter..... 0 .. . mine the background and to state which pixel contributes to N the flux of which object. This is further complicated by the 2 fact that HH 211 FIRS2 has a higher surface brightness than our point source HH 211-MM at 160 and 200 m. Additionally, 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 IC 348 IR could influence our measured flux for HH 211-MM ( m) also. Nevertheless, the derived properties for HH 211-MM are T = 20.3 K, = 1.8, = 15.4 10 sr for the graybody, and Fig. 6. As Fig. 2, but for IC 1396 W. We do not have LWS data for this T = 24.5 K, = 3.8 10 sr for the blackbody fit. source. The best graybody and blackbody fits are similar with a tem-

Fig. 3. Best fit using Eq. 1 and the IRAS (12 and 25 m), ISOPHOT (60, 100, 160 and 200 m), SCUBA (450 and 850 m) and IRAM (1300 m) points of Cep E, RNO 15 FIR, L 1157 and HH 211-MM (from top to bottom and from small to big circles). For obtained parameters of the best fit see text. The models and datapoints are shifted for RNO 15 FIR, L 1157 and HH 211-MM by one, two and three orders of magnitude down, respectively, for convenience. HH 211-MM was not detected by IRAS.

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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

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perature of T = 30.6 K, = 0.0 and = 1.0 10 sr. A single dust component is not appropriate to fit the data. Extended cool dust, or a close group of cold sources, are seen northeast of IC 1396 W, while a very cold bright source appears at 200 m to the south-west.

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( m)

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GT QV WV V ¡ V

Due to the difficulties in the determination of the fluxes of HH 211-MM we supplemented the ISOPHOT data with SCUBA datapoints at 450 and 850 m from Rengel et al. (2001) and at 1.3 mm from McCaughrean et al. (1994). The fluxes are 16.4 and 3.8 Jy for the SCUBA measurements (Rengel priv. communication) and 0.9 Jy at 1.3 mm. We find a good fit ( = 0.6) and the following object parameters: T = 21.3 K, = 1.3 and = 10.3 10 sr. Again the inferred temperature does not differ from the value obtained from ISOPHOT data only. Due to the low temperature we find a different sub-mm slope and size of the source, since our
hV T )
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ISOPHOT points cover only the wavelengths shortward of the emission maximum.

Our PHOT maps and the derived photometry for IC 1396 W are shown in Fig. 6, togther with the blackbody fit to




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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

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these data. In the maps, two additional sources are evident. IC 1396 W FIRS2, to the north-east of IC 1396 W, peaks at 160 m, whereas IC 1396 W FIRS3, to the south-west, is remarkably red, with a flux ratio at C /C of 2.6. These additional objects were not detected with the C100 detector, be= 3, which may be indicating a large amount of cold dust cause the maps at these wavelengths are slightly smaller and in the envelope of this source. the objects just fall outside. For IC 1396 W itself we find a temperature of T = 30.6 K, = 0.0 and = 1.0 10 sr for the best graybody fit. This fit is poor, however, suggesting errors in the photometry or a source with dust at more than one temper- 3.6. RNO 15 FIR ature. The ISOPHOT maps of the RNO 15 FIR region are shown in Fig. 8, together with the derived photometry and the black3.5. L 1211 body fit to these data. Visible on our maps are RNO 15 FIR in the centre, and the Class 1 source RNO 15 to the southOur PHOT maps of L 1211, the derived photometry, and a east, marked by a cross. Since this source is warmer than blackbody fit to these data are displayed in Fig. 7. Somewhat RNO 15 FIR, it is seen well at the shorter wavelengths, but to our surprise, the L 1211 source was not found at its nomfades considerably relative to RNO 15 FIR towards the longer inal IRAS position, but is shifted a full pixel, corresponding wavelengths. From higher spatial resolution sub-mm maps at to 45 to the north. A second source L 1211 FIRS2, is found 450 and 850 m taken with SCUBA (Rengel et al. 2002) we in the south-west. The best fits to both sources are blackbodys know that two other emission objects SMS1 and SMS2 are with temperatures of T = 29.8 K and T = 26.3 K for L 1211 and present to the north and south of RNO 15 FIR, but are merged L 1211 FIRS2, respectively. We infer a solid angle of the with it at ISOPHOT resolution. They surely influence our flux sources of 2.3 and 1.8 10 sr. The quality of these fits is measurements, so that the inferred properties for RNO 15 FIR not good (the is 1.6), as in the case of RNO 15 FIR. (T = 39.1 K and = 0.9 10 sr) have larger uncertainties. Comparing our maps with the work of Tafalla et al. (1999) and Anglada & Rodr´ iguez (2002) we find that our object L 1211 Since the ISOPHOT measurements show a broad and not is identical to MMS 4 or VLA 5 and the object L 1211 FIRS2 well defined maximum of the SED, we supplement these data seems to be a superposition of MMS 3, MMS 2 and MMS 1, with SCUBA measurements of Rengel et al. (2001) to deterand VLA 3 and VLA 1, respectively. mine more accurate source properties. The fluxes at 450 and Tafalla et al. (1999) classify L 1211 as a transitional object 850 m are measured in a 45 by 45 aperture and are 9.2 and between Class 0 and Class 1. They use the IRAS fluxes and an 1.4 Jy (Rengel priv. communication). Using these data in comadditional observation at 1.2 mm (0.135 Jy). With these data, bination with the ISOPHOT points we get slightly different valas for our ISO data, the maximum of the emission could not be ues for the temperature and the size of the source (T = 34.8 K, determined exactly. It could only be constrained to lie between = 1.5 10 sr) and the sub-mm slope is = 1.0. The qual100 and 1200 m. With our ISO data, we could corroborate the ity of the fit with = 0.96 is not good. This may be due to assumption that L 1211 is of Class 0, since the maximum of the the fact that RNO 15 FIR is a double source, as suggested by SED is at m. If we use the 1.2 mm datapoint from Davis et al. (1997). It is also indicated by the deviation of the Tafalla et al. (1999) for our analysis, we get quite a bad fit with data points from the determined SED (see Fig. 3).
i
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Fig. 7. As Fig. 6, but for L 1211. The best fit is a blackbody with the temperature of T = 29.8 K and = 2.3 10 sr. Here we also have an object which is not fit well by a single dust component. The object appears north of the nominal IRAS position, and a second cool source is detected south-west of it.
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Fig. 8. As Fig. 6, but for RNO 15 FIR. The best fit is a blackbody with the temperature of T = 39.1 K and = 0.9 10 sr. South-east of RNO 15 FIR, the warmer Class 1 source RNO 15 is detected as well (marked by a cross), especially at the shorter wavelengths. The positions of two other weak sub-mm sources (SMS1 ­ north, SMS2 ­ south) are indicated by a circle (Rengel at al. 2001, 2002).

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60

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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

9

Table 5. Summary of the Class 0 sources for which a correlation of the source properties with the outflow luminosity in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H was investigated. Except for our objects observed with ISOPHOT, L and T are adapted from Andr ´ et al. (2000), as well as all e the M values. The outflow luminosities are either from published literature or our own measurements. In the Ref. column the references are given where we took LH 1 ­ 0 S(1) measurements from.
¦

RNO 15 FIR HH 211-MM L 1157 L 1211 Cep E

8.9 4.1 7.7 33.4 80.4

39.1 16.7 22.6 29.8 34.4 70.0 70 ? 60.0 35.0 70 ? 20 ? 34.0 25.0 35 51.0

­ 1.5 0.5 ­ 7.0 2.3 0.9 1.4 0.6 1.2 4.0 0.5 2.0 0.7 3.0

0.46 3.1 6.1 10.7 70.0 2.16 2.8 5.7 4.46 5.3 1.21 6.61 7.75 0.81 0.64

Fig. 9. The bolometric luminosity­temperature diagram for the Class 0 data analysed here (thick Xs), the Class 0 data from Table 5 (filled diamonds) and the Class 0 data from the review of Andr ´ et e al. (2000) (open diamonds). The superimposed evolutionary tracks are discussed in Section 5. Protostars evolve from right to left. Three tracks for final masses of 0.2, 1 and 5 M are displayed. The model peak accretion rate is reached at 17,000 yr, and the power law fall-off is t with time t, on a 30,000 yr timescale. The vertical dotted lines on the tracks mark the model ages of 20,30 40, 50 and 75 thouReferences: (1) Davis et al. (1997) (2) McCaughrean et al. (1994) (3) sand years. Davis & Eisloffel (1995) (4) Eisloffel et al. (1996) (5) Zinnecker et al. ¨ ¨ (1998) (6) own measurements

4. Discussion
(1998), according to the prescription presented below. We thus determine model ages, present masses of the protostellar nuDo Class 0 objects develop into Class 1 and Class 2 protostars? cleus, envelope masses and the final stellar masses (Table 6). To answer this, we wish to determine basic parameters for the The result is that the more massive Class 0 protostars possess Class 0 protostars, such as age, surrounding mass, present mass large envelopes and would become massive stars. According to and final mass. These, however, are model dependent quan- the model described here, most of the envelope, however, is not tities. In Fig. 9 we plot the locations of our seven (includ- accreted but dispersed, if the majority of protostars here are to ing L 1211 FIRS2) sources on the L ­ T diagram (large form low-mass stars. Note that alternative schemes have been crosses), which is the protostellar equivalent of a Hertzsprung- presented by Bontemps et al. 1995, Saraceno et al. 1996 and ´ Russell diagram (Myers et al. 1998). Also plotted on the di- Andre 2000. agram are the data for another 37 Class 0 protostars, as listed by Andre et al. (2000). Two of these sources possess bolomet´ 4.2. Outflow Luminosity vs. Source Proper ties ric luminosities above 1000 L , and so fall outside the display. Note that Class 0 protostars possess bolometric temperatures Is the luminosity of the outflows from the Class 0 sources corbelow K. related with the properties of the sources like their bolometThe present sample contains quite powerful and cold ric luminosity, the temperature or mass of their envelopes? To Class 0 members. Two sources lie above the location of the answer this question we measured the luminosity of the outother explored sources. These are L 1211 and Cep E. As we flows from 15 of the Class 0 sources in Andre et al. (2000) ´ demonstrate below, such powerful Class 0 sources with low and our objects, in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of molecular hydrogen bolometric temperature, can indeed be included in an evolu- at 2.122 m. Due to the short cooling times (some years, Smith tionary model through the Classes 0 ­ 1 ­ 2. The large surround- and Brand (1990)), H is a good tracer of emission of shocked ing masses observed restrict the type of model and these objects gas caused by current interactions between outflowing material could go on to produce high-mass stars. and the surrounding gas. The 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H is usually the The model tracks plotted represent the evolution of three brightest ro-vibrational line in a spectrum of shocked gas and protostars which end up accumulating masses of 0.2, 1 and thus most easily detected. 5 M . The tracks were derived by combining the Unification In magnetohydrodynamic models of Class 0 sources (e.g. Scheme, as reviewed by Smith (2000, 2002), with the frame- Shu et al. (1994), Hirose et al. (1997) and Ouyed and Pudritz work for protostellar envelopes presented by Myers et al. (1997)) the accretion rate onto the protostar is connected to the

4.1. Mass and Age determination

§



L 1448 N 11.0 L 1448 IRS2 6.0 L 1448 C 9.0 IRAS 03282 1.5 HH 212 MM 14.0 HH 24 MMS 5.0 HH 25 MMS 6.0 NGC 2264 G VLA2 12.0 VLA 1623 1.0 Ser ­ FIRS1 46.0







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10

D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources
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Fig. 11. As Fig. 10 but for the bolometric temperatures of the Class 0 sources from Table 5. No significant correlation is found for this sample.


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Fig. 12. As Fig. 10 but for the envelope masses of the Class 0 sources from Table 5. For RNO 15 FIR and L 1211, we do not have measurements of the envelope mass. No significant correlation is found for this sample.

A better tool for comparing the outflows to source properties may be an optically thin line of CO (e.g. the 1 ­ 0 CO line), which should give a measurement of the time-integrated power of the outflow without being influenced by local extinction effects. Comparable observations in the same transition and isotope of CO are needed for a statistically reasonable sample of objects to study their behaviour. At present, only small samples of Class 0 sources have been thus analysed (e.g. Bontemps et al. 1995; Smith 2000, 2002).
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amount of material injected into the outflowing jet. This material interacts with the surrounding quiescent gas in shocks. Hence, the luminosity of these shocks may be connected to the mass accretion rate and thus to the source properties. Here, we tested for correlations of the 1 ­ 0 S(1) H luminosity with the source bolometric luminosity, the bolometric temperature and the mass of the surrounding protostellar envelope given by Andre et al. (2000). The results of these comparisons are ´ shown in Figs. 10, 11 and 12. We obtained a linear regression for each case and tested if the slope of the regression line differed statistically significantly from a slope value of zero. With a probability of error of 5 % none of the regression lines differs from a constant value. Additionally a Kolmogorow-SmirnowTest shows, that with a probability of error of 0.1 % the data is not consistent with a constant value. Thus, a significant correlation of the outflow luminosity in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H with any source parameter was not found. The lack of such correlations may have various explanations. For example, in each outflow, we observe H emission at various distances from the source and these knots or bow shocks are indicating material which was ejected from the source at different times in the past ( = distance to the source/jet velocity). Also, the knot luminosity depends on the local properties of the surrounding gas (e.g. gas density, atomic fraction). Additionally, the extinction gradient in the K-band along the outflow is not known. It will alter the measured relative and total fluxes in the sense that knots closer to the source appear fainter due to higher extinction. In Section 5, however, we argue that the location on these diagrams depends sensitively on both mass and age, which results in a wide scatter. Therefore, the lack of a significant correlation of the present source properties and the outflow luminosity in the H 1 ­ 0 S(1) line may not be surprising.
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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

11

Fig. 13. The derived outflow shock luminosity versus the bolometric source luminosity for the Class 0 sources listed in Table 5, as well as the Class 0 sample investigatd by Stanke (2000) (symbol: `x') and the far-infrared line ISO luminosities presented by Giannini et al. (2001) (symbol: '*'). The model tracks are for the same three models presented in Fig 9 and the straight line divides model Class 0 and model Class 1 protostars, as determined by the protostar possessing half of its final mass.

Fig. 14. The derived outflow shock luminosity versus the bolometric source luminosity for Class 1 sources from the sample of Stanke (2000) (symbol: `x') and the far-infrared line ISO luminosities presented by Giannini et al. (2001) (symbol: '*'). The model tracks are for the same three models presented in Fig 9 and the straight line divides model Class 0 and model Class 1 protostars, as determined by the protostar possessing half of its final mass.

the total required mass to form the star and excavate the bipolar outflow. The other 13 % is presumed to initially lie within a An evolutionary model for protostars is presented in the flattened disk. This yields the values in the column 'infall mass' Appendix. The outflow scheme has been elaborated by Smith in Table 6. (1999, 2000, 2002) and applied by Davis et al. (1998), Yu et In Fig. 9, we plot the sample summarised in Table 5 for al. (2000) and Stanke et al. (2000). It is based on a prescribed Class 0 sources for which a correlation of the source properaccretion rate from an envelope. Modelling of outflows has ties with the outflow luminosity in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H has demonstrated that the fraction of mass which escapes through been investigated. Note that this sample includes warmer and jets must reach a maximum during the Class 0 stage. This is less luminous protostars than in the ISOPHOT sample invesrequired to account for the excess momentum and power of tigated above. According to the tracks, this corresponds to a Class 0 bipolar outflows, as calculated from observations of wide range in final stellar masses. The lowest mass star formemission lines of CO rotational transitions (see Smith 2000). ing here is found to be VLA 1623 (assuming T = 35 K) which We outline in the Appendix the fundamental formula of the will reach just 0.07 M , owing to its low bolometric luminosity evolutionary scheme. of only 1 L (Andre et al. 2000). The low final mass is a result ´ According to previous modelling of the envelope, three pa- of this version of the evolutionary scheme employed, for which rameters must be introduced to generate plausible models for we maintain the same accretion timescale but alter the accrethe bolometric temperature. As shown by Myers et al. (1998), tion rate to generate the tracks. This implies that the final mass these are (1) the envelope's outer temperature (here T = 24 K), is nearly proportional to the peak accretion luminosity. Future (2) the efficiency of accretion of the envelope into the star- statistical studies will lead to revisions of this first model. be jet system and (3) the difference in evolutionary timescale be- able to revise the scheme. tween the envelope and the protostar. The envelope consists of The simplest form of the unifying model, assumed here, material which will fall onto the central object as well as mass is that a fraction of the jet power is instantaneously dissipated directly lost soon after the Class 0 stage. This extra mass com- in shock waves, while the bipolar outflow is a time-averaged ponent proves necessary to produce a low bolometric tempera- recording of the momentum outflow. To model the outflow, we ture, as observed for the Class 0 sources, yet must be rapidly have previously employed the H luminosity, L(H ), which we lost in order to yield T Tauri stars within a reasonable time estimate to be ten times the 1 ­ 0 S(1) luminosity. This is con(Myers et al. 1998). sistent with expectations from shock physics and allows a comPreviously, we modelled the envelope evolution by assum- parison with previous diagrams presented by Stanke (2000) and ing mass conservation. Here, we find two significant adjust- Smith (2002). Here, however, we shall use the jet power itself ments are necessary in order to model the new data and main- as the comparison parameter. For the comparison, we assume tain plausible time scales. First, the initial mass in the enve- that the observed emission is produced in the warm shocks lope which will eventually fall inwards is reduced to 87% of where the jets dissipate their energy, L .

5. An evolutionary scheme

§

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12

D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

Table 6. Parameters derived for the seven objects from the model evolutions. The minimum mass is the total mass with density distributed as necessary to provide an optically thick sphere out to a radius R , corresponding to the observed T . The infall mass is the envelope mass which remains to be accreted (a part of which will escape in the jets), and the envelope mass is the total mass predicted on projecting the distribution out to a radius corresponding to the chosen ambient temperature of 24 K. The model mass accretion rate decreases as t on a 30,000 yr timescale. The age is given in years, the masses are in solar masses. Object RNO 15 FIR HH 211-MM L 1157 IC 1396 W L 1211 L 1211 FIRS2 Cep E Age Mass Final Min. Infall Env. mass mass mass mass 27000 17100 20000 24000 23000 22000 26000 0.10 0.06 0.12 0.22 0.40 0.20 0.96 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.3 2.5 1.3 5.2 0.10 6.67 2.03 0.83 1.77 1.48 1.64 0.37 0.47 0.68 0.99 1.85 1.02 3.71 1.4 7.2 5.9 5.5 10.7 6.9 16.3
©¨ § ¥¢¦ ¨ §

Acknowledgements. Jochen Eisloffel and Dirk Froebrich received ¨ financial support from the DLR through Verbundforschung grant 50 OR 9904 9. We thank Manfred Stickel from MPIA for his help with the data reduction of the PHOT data. We would like to thank the referee Dr. P.M. Andr ´ for his very useful e comments, which helped to clarify and improve the readability of the paper. We also thank Alex Rosen for a critical reading of the manuscript and the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure, Northern Ireland for financial support.

§

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The fraction of the jet power dissipated in molecular hydrogen lines is taken to be 2 %. This is consistent with numerical simulations and bow shock modelling which predict, typically, 10 % of the infrared radiation from shocks in dense clouds to be in the form of H lines. We also assume that 80 % of the jet energy is hidden by just under two magnitudes of K-band extinction. The shock power has also been estimated from the far-infrared lines of CO, OI, OH and H O, measured by ISO (Giannini et al. 2001). Here, we shall assume that these lines in total, within the ISO-LWS beam, also represent 2 % of the jet power, L . We thus increase estimated H and sub-mm luminosities by 50 to yield the displayed values. While these approximations are far from ideal, they permit us to determine if the evolutionary scheme is plausible. Figure 13 demonstrates that the Class 0 protostars possess almost exclusively high ratios of L(H )/L (one of the two sources well within the Class 1 regime is VLA 1623 which may be obscured by up to 5 magnitudes of K-band extinction; see Davis & Eisl ¨ fel 1995). Furthermore, these data are of consistent with the same model tracks fitted to the bolometric luminosity­temperature data. The lack of a correlation in the data is thus put down to the combination of the distributions in both mass and age. In addition, previously measured Class 1 outflows almost all lie below the predicted Class border line, as shown in Fig. 14. Note, however, that for many of the H flows in Orion detected by Stanke (2000) only upper limits for the bolometric luminosity are available. Nevertheless, the division of the two Classes with the model straight line where the protostar has acquired half the final stellar mass, is evident. Figures 15 demonstrates that the model is also consistent with the envelope properties. The main exceptions apparent from this diagram are a group of low luminosity H objects. This suggests that the extinction for these sources may far exceed the fiducial two magnitudes.
§


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Fig. 15. The derived outflow shock luminosity versus the bolometric source temperature for the Class 0 sources listed in Table 5. The model tracks are for the same three models presented in Fig 9.

6. Conclusions
We have determined the spectral energy distributions for the six deeply embedded objects Cep E, L 1211, IC 1396 W, L 1157, HH 211-MM and RNO 15 FIR in the far-infrared with ISO. The inferred temperatures and L /L ratios confirm their Class 0 nature, within the errors. Employing an evolutionary scheme, we are able to determine the age, surrounding mass and the current and final mass of these sources. Two of them, Cep E and L 1211 seem to become intermediate mass stars, while the others will develop into solar mass stars or lower mass objects. The comparison of the ISOPHOT and LWS observations for three of the sources reveals the existense of emission from cold dust in the immediate vicinity of the objects. A comparison of the luminosity in the 1 ­ 0 S(1) line of H of the related outflows for 15 Class 0 sources, with the source bolometric luminosity, bolometric temperature and envelope mass was done. We found no statistically significant correlation of the outflow luminosity with each of these source parameters. This could be due to the H luminosity mainly depending on the local properties of the surrounding gas. The unifying scheme, however, explains the lack of correlations as due to evolutionary effects. Furthermore, the scheme which involves a redistribution of mass between envelope, disk, protostar, jets and outflow, accounts for the differences in source properties according to the Class.


D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources The ISOPHOT data presented in this paper were reduced using PIA, which is a joint development by the ESA Astrophysics Division and the ISOPHOT Consortium with the collaboration of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC). Contributing ISOPHOT Consortium institutes are DIAS, RAL, AIP, MPIK and MPIA. The ISO Spectral Analysis Package (ISAP) is a joint development by the LWS and SWS Instrument Teams and Data Centers. Contributing institutes are CESR, IAS, IPAC, MPE, RAL and SRON.

13

'infall mass' in Table 6. The total mass can be written analytically in terms of an incomplete Gamma function on integrating Eqn. 5:
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Secondly, we find that the low bolometric temperatures of Class 0 protostars can only be attained by introducing an additional mass component to the envelope. In confirmation of the results of Myers et al. (1998), we find that this extra mass is lost on a shorter timescale than the protostellar accretion timescale. Appendix The bolometric temperature is calculated according to the opWe present and test a model based on the transfer of gas betically thick case of Myers et al. (1998). We thus extend the tween components. We take a spherical envelope of gas and opacity law approximation employed up to 60 to 120 m with dust, and prescribe an accretion rate from the inner edge of the the same form and take the optically thick envelope throughout envelope onto a disk. Note that we assume a centrifugal barrier the early evolutionary stages. We have thus found here that an at 30 AU, which defines the inner envelope ­ outer disc tranenvelope mass sition. The accretion disk processes most of the mass onto the (9) protostar and a fraction into twin jets. The speed of the jets is assumed to be a fixed fraction of the escape speed from the where provides bolometric temperatures, timescales and protostellar surface. masses consistent with the observed samples. The accretion rate from the envelope is taken to increase The envelope mass provides a testable prediction. This exponentially for a short period before decreasing as a power mass is not strongly dependent on the evolutionary path but is law through the Class 0, 1 and 2 phases. The zero point of time necessary to provide the optical depth out to a sufficiently large is thus defined as the moment when accretion starts and, simulradius to permit the measured low bolometric temperature. The taneously, a central hydrostatic object forms. The accretion rate total mass is dominated by the outer regions of the envelope, is while the total optical depth is controlled by the inner region , as (5) (for all plausible density distributions such as assumed here). Hence, the mass is sensitive to the extent of Energy release through accretion and contraction are included. the envelope. For this reason, we present three determinations In the models shown, the peak accretion rate is reached at of the envelope mass in Table 6. Masses derived from submil´ t yr, and the power law index is , on limetre observations yield quite low extended masses (Andre et a t = 30,000 yr timescale. The accreted mass is predominantly al. 2000), consistent with the absence of more mass than necaccrued by the growing protostars. The fraction which es- essary to form the star and feed the jets (Smith 2000). It is clear capes through twin jets reaches a maximum of at the that both the observationally derived mass and model mass are sensitive to chosen physical parameters and both will need repeak accretion time: fining. (6) References
Andr ´ P., Ward-Thompson, D., Barsony, M. 2000, in Protostars and e, Planets IV, 59 Anglada, G., Rodr´ iguez, L.F., 2002, Revista Mexicana de Astronom´ ia y Astrof´ isica, 38, 12 Bontemps, S., Andr ´ P., Terebey S., Cabrit S., 1996, A&A, 311, 858 e Calvet N., Hartmann L.W., Strom S.E., 2000, in Protostars & Planets IV, ed. V. Mannings et al., (Tucson, U. of Arizona Press), 377 Chini, R., Ward-Thompson, D., Kirk, J.M., Nielbock, M., Reipurth, B., Sievers, A., 2001, A&A, 369, 155 Clegg, P.E., Ade, P.A.R., Armand, C., et al., 1996, A&A, 315, L38 ¨ Davis, C.J., Eisloffel, J., 1995, A&A, 300, 851 Davis C.J., Smith M.D., Moriarty-Schieven G.H., 1998, MNRAS, 299, 825 Davis, C.J., Ray, T.P., Eisloffel, J., Corcoran, D., 1997, A&A, 324, ¨ 263 Eisloffel, J., Froebrich, D., Stanke, T., McCaughrean, M.J., 2002, in ¨ prep. Eisloffel, J., Smith, M.D., Davis, C.J., Ray, T.P., 1996, AJ, 112, 2086 ¨ Gabriel, C., et al., 1997, in ASP Conf. Ser. Vol. 125, Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems (ADASS) VI, ed. G. Hunt & H.E. Payne, (San Francisco ASP), 108

where is found to be appropriate. Hence the mass left over, which accretes onto the core to form the star is
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To form a star like the Sun, this model will provide an early accretion peak in which for 10 years, and eventually becoming for 10 years, corresponding to Class 0 and Class 2 or Classical T Tauri stars, respectively. The power-law has substantial observational support (Calvet et al. 2000). We previously modelled the envelope evolution by assuming mass conservation. Here, we make two significant adjustments in order to model the new data. First, the initial mass in the envelope which will eventually fall inwards is reduced to 87% of the total required mass to form the star and excavate the bipolar outflow. The other 13 % is presumed to initially lie within a flattened disk. This yields the values in the column

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D. Froebrich et al.: Far-infrared photometry of deeply embedded outflow sources

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