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Journal of the Amateur Astrono mers Association of New York December 2011 Volume 59 Number 12 ISSN 0146 -7662 MESSENGER BRIEFING: ORBITING the METAL -RICH PLANET
By Denton Ebel, Curator (Meteorites) Curator-in-Charge Dept. of Earth and Planetary Sciences, AMNH
MESSENGER stands for Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging. This instrument -rich spacecraft, launched in August 2004, is designed to answer a broad range of science questions. Eyepiece readers may have attended the public lecture given by Principal Investigator Sean Solomon of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in July 2010 at the American Museum of Natural History. After three fl ybys, a major rocket burn inserted the MESSENGER spacecraft into Mercury orbit six months ago. What have we learned? Seven papers in Science (vol. 333, 30-Sept-2011) reveal Mercury's surface composition, map flood volcanism in the Northern Plains, suggest possible recent volcanic activity, constrain the shape and variability of Mercury's magnetic field, and describe interactions bet ween the magnetosphere and plasma in Mercury's exosphere. "This is the first major scientific meeting at which MESSENGER orbital observations are being presented to the scientific community," sa ys MESSENGER Principal Investigator Sean Solomon of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. "As the first spacecraft to orbit our solar system's innermost planet, MESSENGER continues to reveal new surprises every week. It is timely to sum up what we've learned so far and to seek feedback from our international colleagues across planetary science on our interpretations to date." The composition of Mercury is ver y different from that of the Moon and other terrestrial planets. Its iron core makes up about 65 % of Mercury's total mass. Earths core, by comparison, is just 32 % of its mass. Understanding how such a planet accumulated from the dust, ice, and gas in the earl y solar nebula is a key science goal of the MESSENGER mission. To a cosmochemist, the finding of an Earthlike ratio of potassium to thorium, very unlike the low ratio in the Kdepleted Moon, signifies lack of substantial fractionation of volatile elements. Mercury's surface also has a high sulfur/ silicon ratio, higher than the Earth's. Both of these findings rule out formation hypotheses requiring the boiling off of Mercury's mantle by an early, hot sun, or high -temperature condensation of Mercury from the same kind of material that formed the Earth. MESSENGERs compositional analysis also raises difficulties for another hypothesis: that a major impact occurred

EYEPIECE
after differentiation of the core, and stripped off much of the planets original mantle. Re-accreted impact debris should have lost volatile elements to space. Unless almost all of the stripped mantle material failed to re-accrete, Mercury's high volatile content is difficult to explain by the impact hypothesis. Your author, and Conel Alexander of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, recently proposed in Planetary and Space Science that Mercury's formation zone was enriched in carbon -rich interplanetary dust that caused sulfur to condense into solid, less volatile minerals at very high temperatures. This hypothesis predicts MESSENGERs findings of high sulfur content, but does not entirely explain the stark condition of Mercury's huge iron core. New research results are expected to come from recent increases in solar flare activity excited x-ray emission by heavier elements, allowing further confirmation of Mercury's high sulfur/silicon ratio by the MESSENGER x-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRS), and better constraints on surface concentrations of titanium. Accumulating XRS data begin to suggest compositional differences bet ween various rock units.. Spectroscopists are working to tease out the mineralogy of Mercury's surface, but its low iron and titanium contents relative to the Moon or Mars render infrared spectra nearly featureless. Measurements of Mercury's elongate scarps are providing new constraints on how much the planet has shrunk over time. The geoph ysics group has worked out the parameters that describe Mercury's shape, using gravity data (ranging). These constrain models of Mercury's interior structure, which is sure to be unique given its large core and sulfur-rich composition. With time, the complex exosphere - magnetosphere - solar wind interactions begin to reveal themselves as solar maximum is approached. MESSENGER has provided the first up-close look at Mercury since the Mariner flybys of the 1970's, and the first sustained investigation from orbit. Humans have been trying to figure out how planets form for hundreds of years, and these new findings bring the last so-called 'terrestrial planet' into the realm where comparative planetology can be applied with strong observational constraints.


EYEPIECE

December 2011

WHAT'S UP IN THE SKY
AAA Observer's Guide for December 2011 By Richard Rosenberg

AAA LECTURE SERIES TO PRESENT NOVAE and SUPERNOVAE - DEC. 2
By Dan Harrison Dr. Michael Shara, curator in the Department of Astrophysics at AMNH, will discuss "How Novae and Supernovae Are Connected" on Friday, December 2. The free public lecture begins at 6:15 p.m. in the Kaufmann Theater . In discussing what hell talk about and why its significant, Shara tells Eyepiece: "The 2011 Nobel Prize in physi cs was awarded to three astrophysicists credited with discovering ,,dark energy, the mysterious entity which accounts for 70% of all the mass-energy in the universe, and which is causing the universes expansion to accelerate." "Measuring and understanding dark energy hinges on understanding type Ia supernovae, the ,,standard candles used by the Nobel prize winners. Are these luminous objects reall y all the same luminosity, or do they have subtle differences whose misinterpretation could mimic an acceleration of the universe? The only wa y to understand type Ia supernovae is to know, with certainty, exactly what kind of star gives rise to them. This would allow astronomers to determine if these kinds of stars changed systematically over 13 billion years, and thus if we might be misinterpreting them as standard candles when they are, in fact, not standard at all. Six models for type Ia-supernova progenitors, the stars that give rise to them, have been proposed in the past 30 years, including several kinds of novae. Ill describe these models, and show how Hubble Telescope observations have made dramatic progress in the past six months in ruling out all but two of these models. Ill also answer the question: Could dark energy not really be there?" Prior to joining the museum 12 years ago, Shara spent 17 years at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STSI) where he managed peer-review committees for the Hubble and is now an astronomer with tenure. His Ph.D. from Tel -Aviv University and masters degree from the University of Toronto are augmented by an adjunct professorship at Columbia. Sharas AMNH responsibilities are to conduct research, train astrophysicists, and curate exhibitions. His "Beyond Planet Earth" special exhibition opened Novem ber 19. Sharas research interests include the structure and evolution of novae and supernovae, collisions between stars and the remnant descendants of those collisions, and the populations of stars inhabiting star clusters and galaxies. Future AAA 2012 Lecture Series Dates
January 6: Robert Nemiroff, Michigan Technological University and NASA, "Best Short Astronomy Videos" February 10: Glennys Farrar, NYU, "Getting Photos of Supermassive Black Holes Tearing Stars Apart" March 2: Charles Keeton, Rutgers, "A Ray of Light in a Sea of Dark (Matter)" April 6: Debra Fischer, Yale, "Searching for Earthlike Worlds" May 4: Alex Wolszczan, Penn State, " The Astronomical Future of Man."
For more information, go to: www.aaa.org/lectures1112

December's Evening Planets: At dusk, brilliant Venus
is low in the southwest, slowl y getting higher each day. After Venus sets, Jupiter dominates the sky. The Moon passes close to Jupiter on the December 6 and meets Venus as a lovel y crescent on the December 26.

December's Evening Stars: Here come the magnificent
winter stars! By 6 p.m., in the middle of December, Auriga and Taurus (with its Pleiades and Hyades clusters) are up in the east. An hour later Gemini and Orion join them, followed by Canis Minor and Canis Major with the brilliant star Sirius.

December's Morning Planets: At 11 p.m. Mars rises.
If you can, watch it regularly ­ you will see the Red Pl brighten with each month. Around 3 AM Saturn comes Before dawn you will be able to spot Mercury easily in southeast. It will be best on the Decem ber 23, but still be ily seen a week before or after. a.m. to see the tail end of the Gemini, Canis Minor and parts spring stars are at center stage: Spica in Virgo (Saturn nearby), anet up. the eas-

December's Morning Stars: Look to the west about 6
winter constellations ­ Auriga, of Orion and Canis Major. The Regulus in Leo (Mars nearby); and Arcturus in BoЖtes.

Comet Garradd: In Hercules this month, it should be visible with binoculars. Look for it in the northwest in the earl y evening hours or in the east just before dawn breaks.

December Day-by-Day
December 2 ­ First Quarter Moon at 4:52 a.m. December 4 ­ Mercury at inferior conjunction, entering the morning sky December 6 ­ Jupiter is upper left of the Moon this evening December 10 ­ Full Moon at 9:36 a.m. Total lunar eclipse is visible onl y in the western US December 10 ­ Uranus is stationary, resuming direct eastward motion with respect to the stars December 14 ­ The Geminid meteor shower peaks December 17 ­ Mars is well north of the Moon December 17 ­ Last Quarter Moon at 7:48 p.m. December 20 ­ Saturn is north of the Moon this morning. December 22 ­ Winter begins at 12:30 a.m. EST December 23 ­ Mercury is at its greatest western elongation in the morning sky December 24 ­ New Moon at 1:06 p.m. December 26 ­ Jupiter is stationary, resuming eastward movement with respect to the stars December 26 ­ Venus is left of the crescent Moon December 29 ­ Pluto is in conjunction with the Sun December 31 ­ Minor planet Ceres is in conjunction with the Sun
For more information go to: http://www.aaa.org/month1112

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EYEPIECE

December 2011

A Message from AAA President Richard Rosenberg
Hello Members: Its getting a little chilly, but were rewarded this time of year with a bunch of easy to spot constellations, magnificent s tar clusters (including the Pleiades), a nebula visible with binoculars (the Orion Nebula), the remains of a supernova explosion (M1) and most exciting -- a comet bonus (comet Garradd). Comet Garradd is predicted to be sixth -magnitude in brightness through February, making it visible in a telescope and binoculars. Now in the constellation Hercules, it is positioned in the northwest a short time after sunset and a short time in t he east before sunrise. Early in December is the best time to see it in the evening -- visibility diminishes with each week , and it is lost in twilight by the end of the month. To compensate, the comet becomes more easily visible in the pre -dawn sky throughout winter. On Saturday December 3, well have a good chance to spot the comet and other objects at the Salt Marsh Nature Center from 5 p.m. to 8 p.m. Observing will be preceded by a talk describing the winter sky. For more information and driving instruction s, go to http://www.aaa.org/saltmarsh on our website. Later in the month, from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m. on Wednesday, December 21, well have another observing session at Belvedere Castle in Central Park. Comet Garradd will probabl y not be visible but the winter sky will be spectacular and Venus, Jupiter and the Moon will compensate. There will also be a pre-event talk. In addition to these two special events, there will be observi ng at Floyd Bennett Field on Dec 2 and solar observing in Central Park on Dec 17. Our monthly seminar series in conjunction with New York University continues on December 8. Event chair and NYU professor Gerceida Jones will speak on The Sirius Mystery by Robert K.G. Temple (St. Martins Press, 1975). It presents the hypothesis that the a west African tribe preserves a tradition of contact with intelligent extraterrestrial beings from the Sirius s tar-system. This months lecture will be given by Michael Shara of the AMNH. He will speak Dec 2 on "How Novae and Supernovae are Connected." We hope to see many of you at a AAA event soon.

Sincer ely,

Rich Rosenberg, AAA President, president@aaa.org (718) 522-5014

GOOD COMETS DON'T DIE ... THEY JUST FADE AWAY
Russian amateur astronomer Leonid Elenin had the good fortune to discover a comet last December 10, but it lasted less than a year from then until its demise. Initially, comet Elenin received much attention because its orbit would take it close to Earth, within 22 million miles on October 16. As recently as August 19, the comet was brighter than predicted, as observed by amateur astronomers in Australia, notably Michael Mattiazzo. Then a coronal mass ejection made the comet drop half a magnitude in brightness. It continued to drop, despite getting closer to the Sun. Elenin was apparently disintegrating, as can happen when comets pass too close to the Sun. On September 10, the comet passed its perihelion, marking its closest approach to the Sun at 44.84 million miles. The next day, Mattiazzo managed a couple of images in evening twilight as Elenin dropped too cl ose to the Sun to be followed any further. The comet was a faint ghost of its former self. Elenin passed Mercury September 27 before moving out of SOHOs field of view September 29. The comet, whose remains wont return for 12,000 years, came closest to Earth October 16, but by that time all that was left were small bits. When it passed perihelion in September, it

had broken into pieces. When Elenin came within 22 million miles of Earth, only a cl oud of debris was visible in scopes. The comet had been 1.2 miles wide when it was in one piece. CALL FOR EYEPIECE WRITERS Those members who enjoy reading Eyepiece may want to learn more about astronomy by participating as a writer. For the past two years and now as current editor, I am constantly exploring leading-edge astronomical events through research for my articles and attending lectures and presentations as an Eyepiece representative. I encourage anyone focused on learning more about the science of astronomy and the exciting missions at NASA, ESA and other sources in the field to join our team of dedicated writers. Please contact me directly to discuss working together.

Evan B. Schneider, Editor
Email: editor@aaa.org Tel: 212-986-4225 Contacting AAA: Website: www.aaa.org; General Club Matters and Observing: president@aaa.org; Membership Business: members@aaa.org; Classes: classes@aaa.org; Seminars: seminar@aaa.org; Eyepiece: editor@aaa.org 3


EYEPIECE

December 2011

AMNH LAUNCHES ITS VISION - THE FUTURE OF SPACE TRAVEL By Dan Harrison
AMNH astrophysicist Michael Shara, lead curator for "Beyond Planet Earth: The Future of Space Exploration," an exhibition at the museum that opened November 19 and runs through August 12, 2012, told a media preview November 15 that the exhibition is coming at a critical time for NASA. "Were at a kind of crossroads. The shuttle program has ended, and thats a little bit like graduating from kindergarten. We want to take those next steps out of our backyard into the neighborhood and then into the big cit y to visit all the other places in the solar system." The show offers a vision of the future of space travel as it explores our next steps in the solar system and beyond. It takes visitors on humanitys journey t o explore the next frontier, either through ourselves or via robotic proxies. Highlighted conceptual future missions include building a space elevator on the surface of the Moon, deflecting a hazardous near-Earth asteroid and traveling to Mars--perhaps establishing colonies there. Before attending the exhibition, visitors can download a free augmented reality (AR) app for iPhone, iPod Touch or iPad created for the show. The app, "Beyond Planet Earth Augmented Reality," can activate 11 AR icons throughout the exhibition, which unlock animations and allow visitors to share images via e-mail, Facebook and Twitter in addition to accessing a special site with additional space-themed links. The icons and links can also be found on the "Beyond Planet Earth" section of amnh.org. The exhibition opens with a retrospective of historic manned and unmanned space missions: Sputnik 1, the first manmade satellite; the Vostok 1 space capsule that boosted Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, into orbit; the Hubble Space Telescope; and a Mars Exploration Rover. Authentic equipment and artifacts on display include a Soviet cosmonaut helmet and U.S. astronaut gloves. A model of Virgin Galactics SpaceShipTwo, a space plane in development, highlights emerging space-travel vehicles. The solar system theater has a video presentation that introduces visitors to future manned and unmanned space missions to Mars, Europa and beyond. The section on returning to the Moon notes that NASA and other space agencies have identified Shackleton Crater, near the South Pole, as a promising site for a lunar base because it offers access to resources such as water -ice and nearconstant sunlight to generate electricity. Along with a scale model of a habitat that could house four astronauts, this area features models of a space elevator that could transport mined materials and a liquid-mirror telescope on the Moons surface. Exploring Asteroids: This section features a 3-D recreation of the near -Earth asteroid Itokawa and the Japanese Ha ya busa spacecraft that rendezvoused with it in 2005 to collect samples. Obtaining pristine samples for study not onl y helps scientists better understand the formation of the solar system, but may reveal the presence of valuable metals. Iron 4 meteorites like the Knowles meteorite from the museums collection are 99% metal alloy and, like some asteroids, could be mined for valuable materials. Asteroids are also a constant threat to life on Earth. NASA has identified more than 1,200 asteroids wider than 500 feet whose orbits come within 5 million miles of Earth. A touch-screen interactive exhibit explores plausible scenarios for deflecting a "doomsda y" asteroid. Next comes Mars. Theres a full-scale model of the ninefoot-long Mars Science Laboratory Rover, Curiosity, which launched from Cape Canaveral on November 26. It will seek evidence of organic life. Miniature models show how astronauts might eat, sleep and exercise during a months-long journey aboard NASAs Nautilus-X spaceship. Since not ever yone is suited for the trip, visitors can take a personality test to see how theyd fare. A prototype of a new space suit shows what an astronaut might wear. A walk-through diorama of the Martian surface and an interactive fl y-over simulation give visitors a sense of what it might be like to explore the planet. Visitors can zoom in on locations such as the Gale Crater, the landing spot for the Curiosit y Rover, and Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and tallest mountain in the solar system. The Mars terraforming table allows several visitors at once to transform Mars from a frozen, thin-aired environment to an Earth -like planet. The exhibit then moves t o the outer solar system. The search for life on Europa could fall to a robotic submersible, a prototype of which is featured, that would melt through the moons icy surface and explore its salty oceans. Now its time to exit the solar system. The exhibition concludes with a look at more than 1,000 stars that have been found to have planets. These exoplanets were detected by the Kepler Space Telescope in the first four months of operation. In conjunction with the show, the museum is offering lectures and educational programming. These include SpaceFest January 15, a family celebration featuring spacerelated activities, performances and special dome presentations. There will also be a March 11 program about extremophiles that will examine how organisms that survive in Earths most hostile environments offer clues about extraterrestrial life. See amnh.org for info on additional programs. Predictabl y, Shara and astronauts Mike Massimino and John Grunsfeld, who appeared on a panel at the media preview, asserted that benefits of space travel will be worth the expense. But it was clear they are cognizant of the challenge facing these far -reaching programs: pressure on all agencies of government, including NASA, to tangibl y pare budgets. That notwithstanding, the three agreed major advances can be expected starting in 10 years, with Shara predicting humans on Mars in 15-20 years. "Well only know a bout Martian life by going there," Shara said.


EYEPIECE

December 2011

EXPLOSIVE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS LIGHT UP THE UNIVERSE
By Alan Rude
What is the farthest one can see with the naked eye? This has long been a trick question posed to non -astronomers. When pointed to the Andromeda Galaxy, they were astonished to learn that they could see an object over two million light years awa y (if you do the math, that distance is an incredible 13,000 quadrillion miles). On March 19, 2008, astronomers detected a burst of energy which shattered the record for the most distant object ever discovered. A gamma-ray burst (GRB 080319B) was observed with a visual magnitude 5.3 at a distance of 7.5 billion light years, 3,700 times the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy. Half-wa y across the visible universe, the visual afterglow following the burst set a new record for the most intrinsicall y bright object ever observed: 2.5 million times brighter than the brightest supernova. This burst emitted more light and energy in several seconds than the Sun will emit over its entire lifetime. Gamma-ray bursts are, with the exception of the Big Bang itself, the brightest, most intense and most powerful explosions in the universe. GBR080319B (GRBs are designated by year [2008] month [03] and date [the 19th]), may have been the brightest of those observed, but all such objects emit amounts of energy greater than the Milky Wa y Galaxys output for an entire year. GRBs were first observed by the Vela system of satellites deployed to detect covert (i.e. Soviet) nuclear experiments. Vela detected emissions of gamma-rays and, after ruling out the Earth and Sun as possible sources, scientists concluded that these were "cosmic in origin". At first the common hypothesis was that these flashes or "bursts" originated from inside the Milky Wa y. Further GRB analyses showed that they were evenly distributed throughout the sky and not just in the plane of our galaxy. In fact, many of the newl y discovered GRBs were at "extra-galactic" distances, as far as 13 billion light years away. This discover y brought up a significant problem. At such distances and assuming a spherical pattern, the colossal energy output could not be explained by any known physics. In rethinking the problem, astronomers devel oped a "jet -beaming model" where the energy is concentrated in two particle jets flaring in opposite directions and expanding outward at relativistic speeds. Only when a GRB jet points directly at the Earth do we detect the full effect of the gamma-ray explosion and the visual afterglow. This jet-beaming model reduces the energy emitted to ranges that our physics can handle. GRBs have been studied intensivel y for almost four decades utilizing a series of observing satellites. The first, BATSE, was deployed in 1991. BATSE showed that the majority of gamma-ray bursts originate in distant galaxies and therefore are highly energetic. BATSE was followed in 1996 by BEPPO-SAX, a Dutch-Italian mission affording increased precision in observation utilizing a wide-field camera. In 2004 NASA launched the SWIFT Gamma-ray Burst Explorer. Six years later SWIFT had detected its 500th GRB, an impressive number which included the brightest burst (GRB 080319B) as well as the farthest burst and farthest object of an y kind ever sighted (GRB 090429B) 13.14 billion light years distant. Finally, the Fermi Gamma -Ray Telescope launched in 2008. Fermis most exciting discover y is GRB 080916C, a burst releasing the greatest amount of total energy ever recorded. This enormous output was due to the bursts 23minute duration compared to the two second average for short duration, high-energy GRBs. Astronomers now divide GRBs into two categories: long bursts exceeding two seconds and short bursts. Each type has its own characteristics. Each is powered by different physical phenomena. Scientists are now certain that long bursts, which account for about 70% of all GRBs, result from the collapse of massive stars into black holes. The gamma-ray emissions from long bursts tend to emit lower levels of energy while long bursts are linked to supernovae. However these supernovae are special; only one in 1,000 are powerful enough to generate the energy associated with a long gamma-ray burst. The longest lasting GRB was detect ed in March 2011 in the center of a galaxy 3.8 billion light years away in the constellation Draco. The burst lasted over a week and is believed to be the result of that galaxys massive black hole shredding a neighboring star. Because of their brief duration, short GRBs are still poorl y understood. There are no supernova remains after short bursts which eliminates a massive star collapse as a cause. A consensus is developing among astronomers that the short bursts are the result of extremely violent collisions bet ween neutron stars or even between neutron stars and black holes. To date, no gamma-ray bursts of any kind have been observed within our Milky Wa y Galaxy. How fortunate for us all. A burst occurring 10,000 light years away with its jet pointed in our direction would eliminate most life on Earth. There is some good news, though. In 2006 the Hubble Space Telescope determined that the composition of our galaxy is not favorable for spawning long duration GRBs; unfortunately, this is not the case for the short duration variety. We are still at risk, but at least Earth is a small target in a sea of stars. NEBULA OF THE MONTH--ORION A vast stellar nursery 1,500 light-years from Earth, the Orion Nebula has been studied recently by the Spitzer Space Telescope taking amazing infrared photographs of the evol ving mass of gas and forming stars. The brightest portion of the nebula is centered on Orion's young, massive, hot stars, known as the Trapezium Cluster. But Spitzer also detects the nebula's many protostars, still in the process of formation. Red spots along the dark dusty filament to the left of the bright cluster include the protostar cataloged as HOPS 68, recently found to have crystals of the silicate mineral olivine within its protostellar envelope. 5


EYEPIECE

December 2011

THIS MONTH'S BOOK REVIEW

Astronomical Facts of the Month

"A MORE PERFECT HEAVEN..."
By Luis Marcelo Cabrera "Fascinating and immersive" - that is how I describe Dava Sobel's latest book, "A More Perfect Heaven: How Copernicus Revolutionized The Cosmos" (Walker & Company, 2011, $25). Although the main ideas behind the Copernican model have been discussed, explained and debated for centuries, the author successfull y mixes science, history, biography and political affairs to bring a truly entertaining account of Copernicus and the publishing of De revolutionibu, his seminal work on heliocentric theory. The book is divided into several chapters comprised of three main parts. The first describes Copernicus' life, interests and work. It is a very fluid narrative, not spending too much time detailing the political arena of the times but still exploring several historic events that play a significant role later on the book. and in history. Sobel continues the story as if it were a play, narrating the relationship between Copernicus, Rethicus and other characters. Although no one knows for sure how he managed to convince his master to publish De revolutionibus the young mathematician Rethicus ultimately succeeds. Sobel's prose is a compelling presentation of the event. The book paints a vivid picture of the dangers awaiting anybody who opposes clerical teachings, scripture and common sense. Not only the Roman Catholic Church would later condemn heliocentrism, but prominent protestant figures, including Luther himself will voice strong opposition to this concept. The book continues with a collection of accounts about the "aftermath" of the publication of De revolutionibus, providing descriptions of the works of renowned scientific masters Rethicus, Tycho, Kepler, Galileo and others, and how each scientist was influenced by Copernican theory. These scientists were all linked by their common goal to seek out the truth, and at the time Copernicus perspective was the strongest. Sobel graciously describes in great detail personal experiences surrounding the publication of De revolutionibus. Fascinating anecdotes include "Doctor Copernicus" and his work as a canon of the Archdiocese of Varmia, Rethicus' stay in Varmia during times when Protestants had been vanished from that land and life before and after working with Copernicus. Of particular interest is the anonymous and unauthorized preface to De revolutionibus by Osiander and Kepler's later attack on Osiander when he published his New Astronomy. Fascinating read, entertaining and informative, "A More Perfect Heaven" is another great work by this accomplished author. Science buffs and history l overs alike will enjoy reading the chronicles of a Polish cleric, his secret manuscript and how its publication revolutionized the way we understand our place in the universe today. As she achieved with her previous international bestsellers "Longitude and Galileo's Daughter, " Sobel pushes beyond popular science writing into a book that is entertaining and intriguing for us all. 6

What Color is the Universe? The answer is "pinky beige" according to John Hopkins University and the Australian 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey at the Anglo-Australian Observatory in New South Wales, Australia. Perception of color will vary depending upon viewi ng at setting daylight (Standard D65) or when dark adapted (Illuminant E). ________________________ How Did It Get to be This Color and Will It Change? The universe started out young and blue, and grew gradually redder as the population of evol ved red giant stars built up. The rate of formation of new stars has declined precipitously in the last 6 billion years due to the decline in reserves of interstellar gas for forming new stars. As the star formation rate continues to decline and more stars become red giants the color of the universe will become redder and redder. Eventually all stars will disappear and nothing will be left but black holes. These too will eventually evaporate via the Ha wking Process and nothing will be left except for old light, which will itself redden as the universe expands forever (in the current cosmological model).

NOVEMBER OBSERVATIONS By Joseph A. Fedrick
Venus Enters the Evening Sky A Large Sunspot Region (1339) Appears During the first two weeks of November I watched the Sun become more active as I projected its image using my 60mm refractor scope. During November much of the Sun was covered with spots and an especially large group, numbered as Region 1339 by solar astronomers, was so large that it was visible with eclipse glasses without magnification. I have not observed any Northern Lights yet; however, several nights have been clouded out. Auroral displays have been seen in recent weeks as far south as Arkansas. I first noticed that brilliant Venus was visible just barely above a hill to my southwest during the first week of November. Venus was still very low and I was awaiting mid November so that I might try seeing Mercury just two degrees bel ow Venus. Jupiter appeared near the Moon as the second week of November was underwa y. Coral pink Mars was appearing bright in the morning sky and formed a nice contrast with bluish Regulus in Leo in early November. Orion was rising earlier to my east and was in the sky by 9PM as we resumed standard time.


EYEPIECE

December 2011

AMNH FLIES AUDIENCE TO THE MOON AND INTO HISTORY

By Evan Schneider
On October 25, AMNH hosted a near capacity crowd as veteran dome fl yer Carter Emmart and Apollo 11 historian Andrew Chaikin conducted a detailed exploration of the Moon from the perspective of NASAs Apollo program. The room was in semi-darkness as the Moon floated at the top of the dome. It was Jul y 20, 1969 and the Eagle lunar module was about to land safely onto the lunar surface. As acting Capcom, future Apollo 16 astronaut Charles Duke was communicating with Neil Armstrong during the lunar landing phase. And then the words 500 million people around the world heard live: "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Our evening had launched. Nestled into the front row was surprise guest speaker Charles Byrne, a former Bell Laboratories system engineer for the Apollo Program for Lunar Orbiter Photography. Byrne explained that NASA needed to identify landing sites for the missions. A stable surface was required to handle the maximum 50cm lunar dust depth for the LEM landing. Bells photographic study determined where astronauts would be able to minimize this risk. Using analog transmissions of scanned photographs sent to Earth, the angle of descent and sunlight was coordinated so that the pilot could see the surface and navigate accurately. Greater contrast provided safer landing conditions. This work coupled with Surveyor craft data allowed NASA to complete its landing analysis. (Mr. Byrnes book "Lunar Orbiter Photographic Atlas of the Near Side of the Moon" (Springer, 2005, $109) is available or visit the Lunar Orbit Image Recover y Project website). With Carter at the controls, Andrew flew over the Moon at Lunar Orbiter distance, carefully identifying typical elements of lunar topography ­ low l ying dark rock areas (maria) indicating former lava flows and older light rock areas (terrae) forming the highlands. Mare Orientale, a 3.5 billion year old asteroid impact crater in the shape of a bulls-eye was shown to display cracks where ancient lava once flowed. This crater is a large scale example of how the Moons molten subsurface rose to form its ridges and basin. Bells Apollo team studied these formations and identified twenty-six potential landing sites for the program. From above the terrain, Chaikin brought up the Google Moon program and flew a bove several key landing sites. Apollo 11 used the hardened lava surface in the Sea of Tranquility while the Ocean of Storms was the Apollo 12 target. During a lunar EVA on October 5, 2003, Apollo 12 astronauts Alan Bean and Pete Conrad visited Surveyor 3, one of several earlier unmanned probes investigating surface conditions. The main objective was to obtain close-up images to determine if the terrain was safe for manned landings. Each Surveyor craft was equipped with a television camera. Surveyors 3 and 7 carried a soil mechanics surface sampler scoop which dug trenches and performed soil tests. Surveyors 5, 6, and 7 had magnets attached to the footpads and an alpha scattering instrument for chemical analysis of lunar material. Before continuing our journey, we observed the footprints of these astronauts as they walked from their LEM to inspect the small craft. Apollo 14 landed in the Fra Mauro Formation highlands, traversing the edge of Cone Crater and making observations of the impact rocks around the perimeter edge. By collecting samples from large rocks near the rim, geologists could study the material dug out by the impact from the deepest part of the crater. These rocks were not exposed to cosmic radiation until dug out by the impact, so geochemistry techniques could estimate how long the rocks have been exposed. In 1975, C.J. Morgan was able to determine that Cone is about 26 million years old (Apollo 14 Lunar Journal can be accessed at http:// next.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/a14.conegeo.html). The Apollo 15 lunar landing team brought their Boeingbuilt lunar rover to the surface for the first time. As with the footprints of previous missions, tire tracks were made during the three EVAs, each covering a 2-3 mile route along the 11,000 ft. high Hadley Delta rock formation. On one EVA the astronauts discovered the Genesis Rock formed in the earl y stages of the solar system, at least 4 billion years ago. Eight months later, Commander John Young and LMP Charles Duke brought Apollo 16 to the surface. After acting as the backup crew for ill-fated the Apollo 13, the astronauts made their contribution to the program by discovering that the Descartes region of the highlands, thought to be formed by volcanism was actually full of impact -formed rocks. Our virtual tour of the Moon was capped by Apollo 17, the last flight of the program. Commander Eugene Cernan and LMP Harrison Schmitt, (the only Apollo geologist astronaut), traveled 21.7 miles across the lunar surface in their rover. Primarily a geological mission to understand the composition of rocks in the Taurus-Littrow region, the astronauts returned to Earth with 242 pounds of samples for analysis. As Carter pulled us away from the lunar surface, we viewed the live stream data set feed from NASA/JPL. We were heading home to Earth after our extended visit to the Moon. INTREPID MUSEUM WILL BE HOME FOR SPACE SHUTTLE ENTERPRISE IN 2012 NASAs space shuttle orbiter Enterprise will land next summer on the flight deck of the Intrepid Sea, Air and Space Museum in NY. Intrepid took ownership on November 22. The orbiter will be flown from Washington, D.C. to JFK aboard a 747 NASA Shuttle Carrier aircraft and then complete its journey to the museum by barge. Enterprise, which didnt fl y in space but performed atmospheric approach and landing tests in the late 1970s is one of four retired shuttle orbiters NASA is providing to museums for public display. 7


EYEPIECE

December 2011

BRIEFS IN ASTRONOMY
NASA'S CURIOSITY HEADS FOR MARS NASA launched the Mars rover Curiosity November 26, kicking off a long-awaited mission to investigate whether the planet could have once hosted microbial life. After travelling 354 million miles, the spacecraft will reach Mars in August, 2012. Weighing 1,000 lbs., Curiosity is fi ve times heavier than each of the last two Mars rovers, the golf-cart-size twins Spirit and Opportunity. While each carried five science instruments, Curiosity sports 10, including a rock-zapping laser and equipment designed to identify organic compounds that would have supported life in Mars. Some instruments sit at the end of Curiosity's five-jointed, seven-foot-long robotic arm, which itself is nearly half as heavy as Spirit or Opportunity. The arm also wields a two-inch drill, allowing the rover to take samples from deep inside Martian rocks, something no other mission has been able to accomplish. A rocket-powered crane will lower the rover on cables, a maneuver never tried during planetary exploration. Curiosity isnt designed to search for Martian life. In fact, if the red dirt of Gale Crater harbors microbes, the rover will probabl y drive over them unaware. ASTEROID'S NEAR MISS OR TARGET PRACTICE? On November 8, a huge asteroid that could potentially threaten Earth one day travelled inside the Moons orbit. At its closest approach, 2005 YU55, roughly 1,300 feet wide, passed by Earth at a distance of 201,700 miles, solidly within the Moons average orbital distance of 240,000 miles. Due to its size and proximity, YU55 was classified as a potentially hazardous asteroid several years ago. Its proximity to Earth was the closest ever calculated in advance. A campaign was organized for amateur astronomers to observe YU55. They were equipped with 0.2-0.5-meter scopes and higher -end CCD cameras. Participants trained in asteroid photometry which required keeping the signal strong enough without excessive trailing. Very short exposures and frequent readjustments to the field kept the asteroid in frame. A key observation target: evidence of a spin-state change of YU55 from the tug of Earths gravity field. THE YOUNG AND THE BRIGHTEST Astronomers have found the brightest and youngest example yet of a fast-spinning star, suggesting the extremel y luminous versions of these super -dense objects may be more common than thought. The millisecond pulsar called J18233021A, emits intense gamma-rays inside a globular cluster 27,000 light-years away in Sagittarius. Analysis suggests the pulsar is 25 million years old, young for these stars, since millisecond pulsars tend to be at least one billion years old. The pulsars age and brightness challenge current ideas about how millisecond pulsars form and how widespread they ma y be. Pulsars form when massive stars die in supernova explosions. Their remnants collapse into compact objects made of neutrons. "Normal" pulsars rotate between seven and 3,750 revolutions per minute, but millisecond pulsars spin up to 43,000 rpm. Theyre thought accelerate by accretion of matter from a companion star. For the study, researchers trained Fermi on 8

globular cluster NGC 6624. Globular clusters are good places to look for millisecond pulsars because dense packing of st ars facilitates formation of binary systems. J1823-3021A spins at about 11,100 revolutions per minute, one complete turn every 5.44 milliseconds. LIFE OR DEATH FROM THE OTHER SIDE Persistence of li fe on Earth may depend upon massive explosions from the other side of the galaxy, according to a new theory suggesting powerful bursts of space radiation could have pla yed a part in some of Earths major extinctions. The explosions, gamma-ray bursts thought to occur when two stars collide, can release tons of high -energy radiation into space. Such blasts could contribute to depletion of the Earths ozone layer. Researchers are beginning to connect these bursts timing to extinctions on Earth that can be dated through fossil records. Such stellar collisions probabl y happen about once ever y 100 million years in a galaxy. At this rate, Earth would have been hit by a number of these events during its 4.5 billion-year history. GALACTIC PINBALL In the last nine billion years, almost ever y galaxy has had, on average, one major collision with a neighbor, a new study reveals. The discovery, using Hubbl e data, provides the most accurate check on galaxy collision rates. Having an accurate value for the merger rate is critical because galactic col lisions may be a key process driving galaxy assem bl y, rapid star formation in early times and the accretion of gas onto central supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies. Small galaxies collide more frequently with large galaxies; clashes between dwarf and massive galaxies in the distant universe three times more often than crashes between two heavy galaxies. BABY'S FIRST PICTURES Astronomers have photographed the youngest exoplanet ever found, capturing the first direct images of a planet forming around its star. LkCa 15 b appears to be a hot protoplanet thats sucking up a surrounding swath of cooler dust and gas. The planet sits in a wide gap bet ween its star and an outer disk of dust. LkCa 15 b is about five times younger than the previous record holder. For the first time, scientists directly measured the planet, 450 light-years awa y in Taurus, and dust y matter around it. The star, about as massive as the Sun, is onl y about two million years old. HIDDEN EXOPLANETS DETECTED Astronomers analyzing 1998 Hubble data found visual evidence for two planets that previousl y went unnoticed. Locating them will allow astronomers to compare earlier observations of the planets orbital motion with more recent methods of detecting alien worlds. Four large known planets circle the massive young star HR 8799, 130 light-years awa y in Pegasus. Its first three gas-giant planets were discovered in 2007 and 2008. In 2010, a fourth, innermost planet was discovered. This is the only alien multi-planet system of which astronomers have direct images. The three outer planets have ver y long orbits: 100, 200 and 400 years.


EYEPIECE HOW BIG IS BIG? One of the largest sunspots in years has appeared. Its about 50,000 miles long and 25,000 miles wide. The sunspot wasnt yet facing us when spotted November 3. Initial photos of the sunspot showed the solar region as it came into view on the northeastern edge, or limb, of the Sun. The sunspot is actually a group of nearby darkened spots, some of which are wider than Earth. DONUTS IN THE MILKY WAY Mysterious donut-shaped clouds of dust found near some gigantic black holes could be the cosmic remains from violent, high-speed collisions bet ween planets and asteroids, according to a new study. Astronomers studying supermassive black holes found about half are obscured from view by strange, fat dust clouds. They suspect the supermassive black hole in the Milky Wa y expelled most of the gas that would otherwise turn into more stars and planets. GAMMA-RAY BURSTS - ANCIENT GALAXIES A bright space explosion has provided a look at the ingredients of two ancient galaxies. Astronomers studied the light of a gamma-ray burst as it passed through its host galaxy and a galaxy nearby. They found the galaxies, which formed when the universe was relatively young, are richer in heavier chemical elements than the Sun. This suggests the galaxies are far more chemically mature than astronomers thought was possibl e for galaxies that formed during such a young stage of the universes evolution. The galaxies are seen as they were about 12 billion years ago. Without the gamma -ray burst, these faint galaxies would likely be invisible. The galaxies must be forming new stars at a tremendous rate, which could explain how the galaxies cool gas was enriched with heavier chemicals so quickl y. This study supports the idea that gamma-ra y bursts may be associated with vigorous, widespread star formation. METHANE-ICE ERUPTION ON URANUS Uranus, recently highlighted for orbiting the Sun on its side, has gained more atypical attention. Astronomers have detected that an enormous bright spot may be an unprecedented eruption of methane ice high in the atmosphere. Astronomers recorded a region 10 times brighter than the planetary background. The spot sits at an unusually low latitude. Earlier, a new study suggested Uranus was tipped on its side by a succession of punches rather than a single knockout bl ow as previousl y thought. VENUS OZONE LAYER DETECTED An ozone layer has been found high in Venus atmosphere. It was detected by a craft gazing at stars that can be seen at the edge of the planet through its atmosphere. The probe scrutinized the starlight for key characteristics of gases in the atmosphere as its absorbed at different wavelengths. It discovered oz one because it absorbed some ultraviolet light from the stars. Venus ozone forms when sunlight breaks up CO2 molecules, which releases oxygen atoms. Venus is thought to have built up ozone by non -biological means. The ozone la yer sits 62 miles above the surface, roughly four times higher than Earth, and is 100 to 1,000 times less dense.

December 2011

VESTA MOUNTAIN RIVALS MARS' OLYMPUS MONS The Dawn spacecraft orbiting Vesta has shone a light on a mountain much taller than anything on Earth rising up from the south pole. The photo shows the peak rising nearly 13 miles, more than twice as high as Everest and nearly as tall as the highest peak in the solar system, Ol ympus Mons, which towers 15 miles above the Martian surface. TINY BROWN DWARF SIX TIMES JUPITER'S MASS Astronomers have discovered more than two dozen previousl y unknown brown dwarfs, including one that ranks among the puniest of its kind. The objects are in two young star clusters. One is just six times the mass of Jupiter, making it one of the lightest free-fl oating objects known. Its mass is comparable to the giant planets, yet it doesnt circle a star. The brown dwarfs are in star clusters NGC 1333, about 1,000 light-years away in Perseus, and Rho Ophiuchi, 400 light years awa y near Ophiuchus and Scorpius. NGC 1333 harbors half as many brown dwarfs as normal stars. MINING OBSERVATIONS FROM THE MOON A new map of the Moon has uncovered many areas rich in titanium ore. Some rocks harbor 10 times as much as on Earth. The map combined observations in visible and ultraviolet. A wide-angle camera snapped pictures in seven wavelengths at different resolutions. Since specific minerals reflect or absorb different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, scientists got a clearer picture of the chemical composition of the surface. MARTIAN CLAY TELLS THE STORY Theres more evidence that Mars was wet and warm in the ancient past, but the discover y comes with a twist: the water may have flowed bel ow the Martian surface. Analysis of clay deposits revealed Mars surface may have been dry and arid even in its distant past, with lakes and rivers dotting the Martian landscape for only brief periods. Scientists examined a decades worth of images, searching for clay deposits. Because different conditions give rise to different chemical changes in the same material, clay can be a distinctive record of the environment that shaped it. Underground clay dominates several types found. This means the majority of Martian clays formed underground, not requiring surface water. Clay beds are dry, arid surfaces covering a wet and tumultuous pulse just beneath the ground. REIONIZATION PERIOD REDEFINED In their hunt for the most distant galaxies ever detected, astronomers have assembled the first timeline for a dramatic phase in early cosmic history. The timeline covers a period known as reionization, 13 billion years ago. It shows it must have occurred more rapidly than thought. During reionization, hydrogen gas cleared and first became transparent to ultraviolet light. Astronomers can look into the remote past and observe faint light from galaxies at different stages in cosmic evolution. A team probed the most distant galaxies several times as ultraviolet light passed through unhindered. Data helped astronomers measure distances of the galaxies, and determined they were observed as they were 780 million to 1 billion years after the Big Bang. 9 ries continued on p


EYEPIECE DON'T BLAME THE METEORITES Huge meteorites may not deserve the rap theyve gotten as life-ending agents of destruction. In fact, cataclysmic col lisions in space may have set the stage for the rise of life on Earth. Scientists say a hail of meteorites far earlier than the species extinction 65 million years ago may have created ideal conditions for primordial life forms. During the Early Bombardment, when Earth was 500 million years old, a barrage of meteorites smashed into the planet, which could have provided necessary materials for a hydrothermal system, similar to todays deep-sea vents. LIFE-GIVING STARS A POSSIBILITY A new l ook at the interstellar dust permeating the universe has revealed hints of organic matter that could be created naturally by stars. Researchers observed stars at different evolutionary phases and found they can produce complex organic compounds and eject them into space, filling the regions between stars. Such chemical complexity was thought to arise only from living organisms, but results of the new study show these organic compounds can be created in space even when no life forms are present. Scientists also found the chemical structure of organic star dust is similar to complex organics in meteorites. SNOW WHITE IS A DWARF A mysterious little world nicknamed Snow White is covered in ice and may sport remnants of an atmosphere, a new study of the dwarf planet outside Neptune has found. Even though Snow White, in the Kuiper Belt, is actually red, half the surface is covered by water ice that probabl y spewed from ancient cryovolcanoes. The dwarf planets reddish hue likel y comes from a thin layer of methane, the last gasps of an atmosphere that has been bleeding into space for eons. It was once an active world with water volcanoes and an atmosphere, and now is frozen dead, with its atmosphere slipping away. Snow White is about half the size of Pluto. The combination of red and water indicates methane. THE DARK SIDE OF GALAXY CLUSTERS Warped visions of distant galaxy clusters are offering a reflection of invisible matter inside them that astronomers are using to map the universes unseen side. Using Hubble, astronomers observed the first of a number of galaxy clusters they hope to use to build a cosmic census of dark matter. To find out where dark matter lies, and how much there is, scientists look for gravitational lensing. By compensating for this effect, researchers can deduce what component is caused by dark matter. Scientists are planning to observe 25 galaxy cl usters. Previous research suggested dark matter is packed denser inside galaxy clusters than thought. If the new study confirms that, it may mean galaxy clusters formed earlier than believed. "OOPS" IN RUSSIAN A robotic Russian spacecraft that launched on a mission to the Martian moon Phobos November 8 is apparently stuck in Earth orbit. The probe separated from its rocket properly, but its thrusters failed to fire to send the spacecraft towa rd Mars. The malfunction dealt a blow to the mission, which aims to send bits of Phobos surface to Earth by 2014. There ma y still be hope for Russia's first attempt at an interplanetary mis10

December 2011

sion since 1996. Engineers are trying to fix the problem. After several days, the batteries were due t o run out, and the spacecraft will likely turn into another piece of space debris. The mission is also carrying Chinas first Mars probe, a small spacecraft engineered to orbit Mars. The Russian mission was slated to shed light on the evolution of Mars and the solar system, and was due to arrive in autumn of 2012. Some instruments were to sta y behind to continue scientific observations. One of the missions payl oads is a capsule of microbes prepared by the Planetary Societ y in the U. S. to investigate how life forms survive and behave on flights through deep space. IT'S SNOWING ON ENCELADUS New high-res maps of Enceladus confirm wintry conditions prevail. "Snow" falls, but at less than a thousandth of a millimeter per year. Ice particles ejected by geysers fall back onto the surface. By mapping these deposits, researchers discovered active icy plumes likely last tens of millions of years on the surface and blanket Enceladus in a thick layer of tiny ice particles. These features are explained by a la yer of looser material on top of more solid ices. This layer is thought to be accumulated deposits from Enceladus plumes, which form a snowy blanket across the surface. The layer of plume deposits in one site sits 350 feet deep. Three other sites exhibit similar topography. Because accumulation of icy particles is slow, the thermal heat source that powers the plumes and maintains liquid water beneath Enceladus icy crust is likely similarly long lived. LIFE FORMING 60 LIGHT YEARS FROM EARTH? Icy comets could be bombarding a nearby alien star system in a storm similar to the one thought to have brought water and other life-forming ingredients to Earth. Focusing on a bright star, Eta Corvi, 60 light -years awa y, scientists found signs of a band of dust that strongly matches the chemical composition of an obliterated giant comet. The Eta Corvi systems age, some 1 billion years, would place it in the right time for such a comet storm. Astronomers havent found evidence of a planet around Eta Corvi, but based on contents of the dust and its proximity t o the star, findings suggest one or more comets collided with an Earth-like rocky body. Researchers analyzing light from the dust found such chemical signatures as water ice, organics and rock pointing to a giant comet as its source.
WHAT'S UP, DOCK? CHINA SPACE STATION COMING

A pair of robotic Chinese spacecraft docked in orbit for the first time November 2, marking a key step toward Chinas goal of building a space station and establishing a permanent manned presence in space by the end of the decade. The Shenzhou 8 spacecraft latched onto a protot ype space-lab module, Tiangong 1. The link is designed to test technologies China will use to assemble a space station in orbit, which it hopes to effect by 2020. The spacecraft circled Earth together for twel ve da ys. Then, Shenzhou 8 detached, retreated 460 feet from Tiangong 1 and docked again. The second docking lasted two da ys. The first Chinese docking was the second orbital rendezvous of the day. Russia successfully docked a robotic cargo ship to the ISS. China hopes to replicate Shenzhou 8 with two more docking missions by the end of 2012. At least one mission will be manned.


EYEPIECE

December 2011

TEACHERS FLY IN ZERO GRAVITY
By Edward Fox This year five New Jersey grade school teachers had a unique experience to relate to their students during their "What I did last summer," class discussions. Linda Kerins, Michelle Marks, Drew Burns, Adrienne OKeefe and Kerry Brennan from the Mountview Road School in Hanover Township recently completed their participation in NASAs Reduced Gravity Education Flight Program (RGEFP). Selected from over 70 proposals and based on scientific merit and education outreach potential, the program gives teams of educators an opportunit y to propose, design, build, fly and evaluate a reduced gravit y experiment. Fl ying out of NASAs Johnson Space Center Ellington Field in Houston, their hypothesis was tested aboard the "Weightless Wonder," a microgravity aircraft producing periods of weightlessness lasting 18-25 seconds while fl ying a series of 30 parabolas ­ a steep climb followed by a free fall ­ over the Gulf of Mexico. "Being selected to fl y our experiment was an amazing adventure. It was truly a once in a lifetime experience that we plan to share with our fellow teachers and students," said teacher Michelle Marks. The team flew their experiment "Magnets in Space" from June 23rd to July 2nd. The focus of their investigation was to study the magnetic force and field around a magnet. Would a magnets ability t o lift objects on Earth in one-g change in zero -g or hyper-g? Would the magnetic field around a magnet in one-g conditions remain the same in zero-g and hyper-g? Scientific concepts and equipment needed to be easil y identifiable to kindergarten through fifth grade students. The experiments were designed using commonly found items - plastic cups as containers, 5/8th inch washers and metal BBs as standard weights, and both wand magnets and key-chain magnets for testing. Every student participated in related magnet and gravity experiments prior to the teams trip. They formulated the hypothesis and signed washers that would be fl own in zero-g and returned to them as a NASA souvenir. "The students were able to see design flaws in our experiment when they were in the planning stages," Brennan explained. "When I asked for their hypothesis on how many washers a wand magnet could hold in zero-g, I was told there would be ever ything from several to none, or they would all float away. We hadn't told them that we were in the process of attaching tubes to the wand magnets to hold them in place to be attracted to the magnets," Brennan added. "They clearly understood the concept of zero-g. Once we explained that, they said the magnet could hold more washers in zero-g." In terms of training, Brennan provided some insight. "We realized ver y quickl y that the key t o not getting motion sickness and getting our experiment completed was paying close 11 attention to the physiol ogical training we recei ved. We followed instructions closel y. "Don't move your head when you are in two-g and simply la y very still flat on the floor." None of us got sick but other groups werent as fortunate. Safet y was also huge. We had to account for ever y item brought into the airplane hangar (which is where most of our pre-flight work occurred). One experiment contained 500 BBs which we had to account for daily. If not, all flights were grounded until everything was accounted for. We learned very quickl y how to keep our items contained. During flight, it was almost an unreal experience. We had no outside visual stimulation (all the windows were shaded) so other than floating during zero-g and being pinned to the floor in two-g, we weren't sure if we were climbing or falling during the parabola." In terms of the hypothesis and results, Brennan shares, "I personally did not think there would be a large difference. The measurable difference was that a magnet can hold more mass in zero-g - the magnetism itself does not change. In the BB experiment with the key chain magnet, we videotaped the BB's in zero-g, floating up and attracted to the magnet. As the plane went into two-g you could see them being pulled off (holding less mass). " Nicole, a 5th grade student, volunteered her perspective, "I thought it was a great experience for the teachers. I want to be a teacher just so I can go to NASA and do the same thing. I thought the magnet would hold less until you told me about the plastic tubes that would hold the washers. Then I thought it would hold more in zero-g" The teachers have been presenting to schools throughout their area and have been filmed by NJTV. The show airs December 11th and January 15th at 12:30pm & 7:30pm For more information about the Reduced Gravity Education Flight Program, visit: http://microgravityuniversity.jsc.nasa.gov and the teacher blog at http://mountviewmagforce5.tumblr.com. Teacher Kerry Brennan is the mother of 8 year -old AAA member Turner Brennan and the niece of the writer. TRAJECTORY FOR ZERO GRAVITY MANEUVER


EYEPIECE

December 2011

AAA Events on the Horizon December 2011
Wednesdays, December 7, 14; 6:30-9:00 p.m., P Fall Class: Laird Whitehill, Evolution of the Solar System Cicatelli Center, 505 Eighth Avenue, Manhattan $45 members; $80 non -members (Pre-registration reqd) Monday, December 2, 6:15 p.m., AAA Lecture, P
Michael Shara, "How Novae and Supernovae are Connected "

NOVA SERIES OPENER WHAT EINSTEIN GOT RIGHT By Leo Genn Albert Einstein looked into space and saw it was curved. Since his initial 1916 publication, "Relativity: The Special and General Theory" (H. Holt and Company), physicists around the world have been working to prove or disprove whether or not Einstein had it right - that space and time are interwoven and that mass pulls on and curves the space around it. Even NASA has launched missions to confirm that time moves faster as gravity decreases; that space and time bend as Einstein theorized. On Novem ber 2, at Columbia Universitys Miller Theatre, the World Science Foundation premiered "What is Space," the first hour of Novas four -hour series based on the book, "The Fabric of the Cosmos" (Deckle Edge, $32.50) written by one of the worlds most noted string theory physicists, Dr. Brian Greene. Greene first stated that light coming from an object moving toward or awa y from us alwa ys travels at the same speed. Paraphrasing Albert Einsteins description of why lights speed never varies, Green said "Knowing that speed is just a measure of the space that something travels over time... Einstein proposed...that space and time could work together, constantly adjusting by exactl y the right amount, so that no matter how fast you might be moving, when you measure the speed of light, it always comes out to be 671 million miles per hour." Thus, space is no longer an empty, absolutel y static backdrop, but instead, space and time "meld together with motion, forming a single entity, "spacetime." For ten years Einstein struggled with the wa y Newt onian physics failed to explain how gravity actually works across seemingly empty space. Greene provided a straightforward summary of current theories of space, time and gravity, stating: "Einstein reached a startling conclusion: the secret to gravity la y in the nature of spacetime. It was even more flexible than he had previousl y realized. It could stretch like an actual fabric. This was a truly radical break from Newt on. If spacetime were nice and flat, objects would travel in straight lines, but if space is like a fabric that can stretch and bend - if I put something heavy on the stretchy spacetime fabric then, a ball shot nearby will travel along an indentation in the fabric that the heavier object creates. And this, Einstein realized, is how gravity actually works. Its the warping of spacetime caused by the objects within it. In other words, gravity is the shape of spacetime itself. The moon is kept in orbit not because its pulled to the earth by some mysterious force, but rather because it rolls along a curve in the spacetime fa bric that the earth creates." Adding to this vision of space as a flexible fabric, Professor Susskind, one of many renowned physicists interviewed said, "With Einstein, space became not only real, but flexible. So suddenly space had properties. Suddenly space had curvature. Suddenly, space had a flexible kind of geometry almost like a rubber sheet." Greene said that with this, Einsteins Theor y of General Relativity shows space "as dynamic, its interwoven with time, it dictates how things move."
Nova Series Opener continue s on page 13

Kaufma n Auditorium of the American Museum of Natural History Next date: January 6
Friday, December 2, 7:30 ­ 9:30 p.m., P, T, C Observing at Floyd Bennett Field, Brooklyn

Next date: March, 2012
Saturday, December 3, 5:00 - 8:00 p.m., P, T, C Observing, Salt Marsh Nature Center, Brooklyn

Next date: TBD
Thursday, December 8, 6:30-8:30 p.m., P Seminar ­ Recent Advances in Astronomy New York University, 726 Broadwa y, 6th Floor Conference Room

Next date: January, 2012 Saturday, December 17, 10 a.m. ­ 12 p.m., P, T, C
Solar observing in Central Park at Conservatory Water

Next date: January 28. Saturday, December 21, 5 - 7 p.m., P, T, C
Observing, Belvedere Castle, Central Park

Next date: TBA

Legend for Events
M: Members P: Open to the public T: Bring your telescopes, binoculars, etc. C: Cancelled if cloudy
AMNH: For tic ket information, call (212) 769 -5200; Check the AMNH's webs ite at www.amnh.org for an additional listing of other events.

For directions to AAA observing events, check the club's website, www.aaa.org.

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EYEPIECE NOVA SERIER OPENER (Con't) Somewhat poetically, Professor Gates added that, "Einstein becomes Einstein because of that observation." Greene then explored physicist Leonard Schiffs 1959 concept to put a gyroscope into orbit to see if the mathematics behind Einsteins General Theory of Relativity would correctly demonstrate how the mass of the Earth would warp surrounding spacetime. The gyroscope would help point and measure changes in direction of its host satellite. Schiff predicted these measurements would show the presence of the mass of the Earth twisting the space around the satellite like a piece of cloth, thereby proving Einsteins theory of General Theory regarding the relativity of space and time. Nova provides great detail of the research leading up to 2004 when NASAs Gravity Probe B was launched. Subsequent measurements of the satellites motion and gyroscopes matched the mathematics behind Einsteins theory of the geodetic effect: that space and time bend around a gravitational body. This initiative provided quantifiable physical evidence that the curvature of space exists. Greene stated that while Quantum Mechanics accurately explains the subatomic world where particles are constantly popping in and out of existence and annihilating each other, the laws of Quantum Mechanics seem to irreconcilabl y conflict with Einsteins General Theory. To resolve this, Greene and many of the worlds leading physicists have spent the last forty years devel oping superstring theory as a "Unified Theory" where the theories of General Relativity and Quantum

December 2011

Mechanics no longer contradict. In the episode, Greene acknowledged that the window is closing for experimental results from the Large Hadron Collider to find superstrings or particles from the "Higgs Field" that would experimentall y prove superstring theory. Greene has said that such a failure could lead to the collapse of superstring theory. In the hour long question and answer discussion after the show, 2011 Nobel Prize recipient Professor Saul Perlmutter stated that "dark energy occupies 75% of the Universe," is just a phrase to describe something we dont understand. In discussing the future of our understanding of dark energy, Perlmutter said "Im betting that if we get one more big shot of data in the next round of experiments we will have a least a fighting chance." Professor Susskind explained that the three dimensional world of particles we see ma y be a hologram like the surface of subatomic particles that exist in several dimenNEXT MONTH IN EYEPIECE Here's a peek at January: Maya Kushner covers the AAA Lecture Series "How Novae and Supernovae are Connected;" Stan Honda shares dark sky observing and astrophotography experiences in the Grand Canyon and Petrified Forest; Diane McMillian covers an AMNH presentation of "The Four Percent Universe;" Tony Hoffman delves into the world of exoplanets and the HARPS project (High Accuracy Radial Velocit y Planet Searcher); "Briefs in Astronomy" continues to amaze us and, of course, Rich Rosenbergs "Whats Up in the Sky" keeps our scopes trained on monthly celestial events.

Amateur Astronomers Association PO Box 150253 Brooklyn, NY 11215. ADDRESS SERVICE REQUESTED

First Class
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