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ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF AVIATION AND AEROSPACE SYSTEMS
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Space activity at the beginning of XXI-st Century
view from inside

G.M.Chernyavskiy
STC for Earth Space monitoring of FSUE , Russia

1. The systemic approach in astronautics

Everyone who has linked his life with astronautics and those who are
interested in the future of the inhabitancy medium and its expansion up to
cosmic scales, are troubled about the current state and development of
space activity in the World and in the Native Land of the first artificial
Earth satellite (AES). Outlining this picture, even in the sketch version,
is far from a trivial task. The angle of its consideration and estimation
is essential. Launching of the first AES was a leap in intellectualization
of collective human mind - the main power capable of preventing the
destruction of the Terrestrial Civilization. Today astronautics has
penetrated both into material and spiritual side of the Human life.

- I.Kant.

From ancient times the mysteries of space environment have attracted
Earthmen. In the thirties of the last century, owing to scientific
research, the ways of penetration into space became clearer.
The founder of the space flight theory using jet propulsion principles was
K.E.Tsiolkovskiy, whose genius was manifested in the system approach to the
problem. K.E.Tsiolkovskiy not only found the means for space flights, but
formulated the aims of these flights as well.
The last 50 years of space age have shown that realization of
K.E.Tsiolkovskiy's ideas about proliferation of terrestrial life forms
through the Universe is a matter of distant future. At the same time, the
target function was determined correctly. The space activity is developing
just along this trajectory.
While discussing current problems of astronautics, one should remember that
the space activity represents a super complex problem that demands huge
intellectual and material resources, concentrating efforts in various
fields of vital activity on the scales not commensurable with Terrestrial
ones.
The problem complexity stipulates the system approach, whose principles in
the astronautics were laid down by K.E.Tsiolkovskiy's works and implemented
at the first AES development.
Methodologically the system approach specificity lies in the fact that it
orients a man, who tries to learn about the objects and phenomena, to their
completeness and integrative properties in space and time. The system
approach (SA) is the expression of some specific measure of reality - its
system nature.
Deep understanding of properties of the material and spiritual world
stipulates progressive differentiation of the branches of knowledge.
Simultaneously, penetration into a partial subject, up to the micro- (nano-
) world, puts forward a systemic (integral) vision of the problem,
understanding of determinants of its aims and organization.
"I believe that learning the parts without knowing the whole is as
impossible, as learning the whole without knowing its parts" - Blaise
Pascal.
The system approach, together with the computer modeling methodology,
represents a unique means of forming the adequate information about space
activity.
The 50-year experience of practical astronautics testifies to the
efficiency of space activity explication by some system of actions directed
at producing and designated utilizing of some class of space-based complex
technogenic (man-made) systems, or (SS) under the accepted terminology.
SS represents an ordered-in-ratios set of space-based (as well as ground-
based) technological means (components) that interact in a certain way. The
integrative properties and functions of this set are directed at reaching
the aims related to space exploration.
The feature of space systems consists in the fact, that their basic part -
the spacecrafts (artificial Earth satellites, automatic interplanetary
stations (AIS), rovers, space vehicles), as well as the means of their
transportation - operate under non-trivial space environment conditions.
The basic system-forming component on the Earth is the complexes of
technological means of SS users. The ground-based means also provide
spacecraft control in flight, preparation and maintenance of transportation
means launching.
Today on the system approach basis the space activity covers the whole set
of actions directed at production, legal protection and using SS in the
target designation including: goal statement, the configuration outline,
development and production of subsystems and components, system operation.
All basic space projects, fulfilled during 50 years, implement complex
systems. They are: the first AES launch, the first manned space flight,
manned and automatic Moon missions, interplanetary flights of AIS. These
projects also include numerous SSs designed for utilizing space
environment.
Operational capability attributes of a complex system during its whole life
cycle are as follows: integrity (emergentness), purposefulness,
acceptability, continuity, dynamism, compatibility, and autonomy. The
presence of aim is an inherent property of any complex system. SS belongs
to the category of systems for which the aims are formulated by a higher-
level system that generates them.
"It is more important to know "what should be done" than to know "how to do
it" (N. Wiener). The more accurately the aims are formulated and
determined, the easier the means of their achievement can be chosen.
At motivation of space activity's aims the intrinsic mechanisms inherent in
Earthmen are of essential importance, which have been produced for
centuries due to natural and anthropogenic environment. These mechanisms
are: creativity, ambitions, competition, inquisitiveness (aspiration to
knowledge), propensity to residence change and to movements (travels) -
"Investigations of space should grasp imagination" (Carl Sagan).
At the same time, the features immanent to a Man prevent association of
society on the global scale for exploring the space. Therefore the space
activity is accomplished at the state level and has a competitive shade.
A key factor in the space activity is getting the benefit in the military,
scientific, economic, and social sphere by the state. Today ambitions in
space activities play a decisive part in the policy of a country.
The space activity requires considerable investments. Hence the large-scale
projects are implemented within the framework of international cooperation.
Successful examples of such cooperation are: the Russian-American ISS
project, American-European cooperation in the field of space research and
Earth remote sensing (ERS), borrowing of technological solutions from
advanced countries by China.
Unfortunately, the monetary approach in Russia resulted in the situation,
when the international cooperation was reduced to participation in the
market of space services. Finished goods are purchased abroad in the form
of instruments and aggregates for space technology, rather than the
developments and technologies. This has resulted in failed Russian-European
projects on establishment of a joint satellite navigation system on the
GLONASS basis and joint development of a reusable transportation space
vehicle (SV).
Over the fifty years two space activity directions with peculiar aims and
means of their achievement have been formed in the world practice.
The principal direction of space exploration is scientific research, whose
aim consists in acquiring knowledge about the space and the Earth as its
integral part. The next direction of space investigation is utilization of
space features and resources directly for terrestrial needs. The target
tasks of global informatization are advanced to the foreground, which
suggests the informational supply of society owing to new information
technologies and promising means including space-based ones.
The direct staying of people in space holds a special place in space
activity. The flight of the first Soviet cosmonaut into space was an epoch-
making event and has served as the beginning of this process. Manned
flights into space have become and remain to be a reference point in space
activity successes. These flights have a great social and political value.
They make it possible to solve the tasks of space features research.
Ranging of the contribution of any country into the world space activity
represents a multicriterion problem. One of simplified solution versions
consists in a qualitative estimation with respect to a series of indicators
excluding their individual weighting factors. The following indicators
could be chosen: scientific and technological results on basic directions
of space investigations and utilization, on manned programs, as well as on
the technological means of space exploration.

2. Technological means for space exploration

Interrelation between "purposefulness" and "acceptability" system
attributes, with a leading part of the first attribute, is decisive for a
complex technological system. For SS the "acceptability" attribute is
substantially determined by technological means' capabilities providing
transportation, as well as direct or indirect stay of a Man in space.
For 50 years of the space age two types of technological means have formed,
which differ in their target designation: spacecrafts (SC) which provide
the SSs target tasks in space (artificial Earth satellites, interplanetary
stations, rovers, space vehicles) and transportation means (launch
vehicles, boosting and landing modules, transportation vehicles which
provide delivery of cargoes on the Earth-space, space-Earth and space-space
routes).
One of the remarkable features of the first AES is the fact that it
initiated the establishment of a new industrial branch, i.e. space vehicle-
building functioning in a system association with rocket building. Features
of this branch consist in developing, manufacturing and operating the
technological means capable of long-term functioning under non-trivial
space environment conditions.

2.1. Space vehicles
The Soviet Union was a founder of the space branch. First-in-the-world-
practice samples of different SCs were produced here performing various
functions but on the whole implementing exactly the system approach.
Today of principal importance for SSs is the ability of real time task
solution which, on the global scale, is provided by an orbital system of
several AESs. Not single but regular, permanent stay of SC constellations
on orbit is the dictates of the 21st century. At the 4th International
Conference on Space (Israel, 28-29 January, 2009), one of basic space
activity directions was declared to be formation of satellite
constellations for integrated sensing of Terrestrial objects and phenomena
in various ranges of spectrum.
SC along with system functions should also perform a set of service
functions providing its functioning in space. For this purpose SCs are
equipped with an onboard power unit, "life support" system, motion control
system, etc. The choice of SC configuration represents a multicriterion
problem solved under the conditions of its parameters correspondence to
system attributes. The principal requirement is increase of value of
information processed at the SC at size-and-mass restrictions (launch
means) and limitations in the cost of SC launch and operation.
The SC configuration is determined in particular by the space platform
structure and onboard target complex. Unification of space platforms is
conducted for reliability improvement and cost reduction. Platform's
analogue from the available technological reserve serves as a basis for
unification. For the first time unification was implemented in the
seventies on the basis of structural-and-assembly scheme and onboard
service systems of the domestic navigation and communication SC "Tsyklon".
Two trends occur when choosing the mass-and-size characteristics of SC.
The first trend is represented by increase of the mass and size of SC. It
is characteristic for AESs on geostationary and high-altitude orbits, where
system's operative characteristics are provided by a limited membership of
an orbital constellation.
The mass of a geostationary AES (GAES) today reaches 6.7 tons (IPStar,
TerraStar) and will be increased up to 8 tons on the Alphabus platform
basis, according to experts' forecasts. Power supply capacity - 18 kW, the
lifetime - up to 15 years. The mass of the GPS SC model, whose launch is
planned in 2013, equals to 2.7 tons (the model operated today weighs 2
tons). The upper limit of SC mass is regulated by system approach's
attributes. The latter is in some conflict with proposals of "Energiya" RSC
on producing universal heavy space platforms.
The second trend is characteristic for satellites on mid- and low-altitude
orbits. Here, the cluster SC system is necessary to provide operative SS
characteristics. And the small satellites are reasonable to reduce expenses
and risks.
The first-in-the-world-practice low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellite for
personal communication with the mass of 60 kg was produced in the Soviet
Union in the middle of the sixties of the last century. At present SSs on
the small-size AES basis began to appear again. The satellites with the
mass of 100-500 kg are produced in a number of countries including Russia.
In 2009 the system of Rapid Eye ERS satellites (the development of British
SSTL and Canadian MDA) was put into operation. The mass of SC equipped with
multispectral instruments, having resolution of 5 m, equals to 175 kg. The
developments of micro-, nano- and pico-AES are in progress as well.
The basic designation of micro-, nano- and pico-satellites is performance
of scientific and technological experiments including remote Earth sensing.
The small-size satellites are also purchased by developing countries that
aspire to enter the club of space states.
The efficiency of SC is estimated by the relative mass: Ìï.í./ÌÊÀ (Ìï.í. is
the payload, and ÌÊÀ is the SC mass). Today it equals to 0.4 - 0.45.
According to "Euroconsult" data, 307 commercial SCs were manufactured
during 1999-2008. According to company's predictions, the world market of
satellites manufacturing for the period of 2009-2013 is estimated by the
figure of $56.6 billion. 469 SCs are supposed to be manufactured. The
annual cost of the global market of SCs of the mass up to 200 kg for the
period of up to 2011 is estimated as $225 million. The quantity of SCs,
supplied by companies, is distributed as follows: "Thales Alenia Space"
(43), "Chinese Academy of Space Technology" (39), EADS Astrium (34), "Space
Systems"/"Loral" (25), "European Satellite Navigation" (19).
The number of SCs in space constellations (2008): China - 46, Japan - 46,
Russia - 51, Europe -115, USA - 330. 107 SCs were launched in 2008. 26 of
them belong to the USA, 20 - to Russia, 12 - to the Peoples' Republic of
China, 8 - to Germany. The Russian orbital system concedes the USA and
Europe considerably.
Today the space vehicle building technology in Russia is in stagnation
state because of growing lag in the radio electronics.
In 2007 the Government adopted an important (from the viewpoint of space
vehicle-building modernization, too) Federal Target Program (FTP) . Its
implementation demands significant investments. Today the international
cooperation in purchasing instruments and, above all, borrowing information
technologies is the only exit from the present situation for Russia. The
first step in this direction is the agreement on strategic cooperation
signed in 2007 between "Reshetnev ISS" Public Corporation and "Thales
Alenia Space" company.

2. 2. Launch vehicles (LV)
At the present stage of space activity the aims of producing launch
vehicles are "intermediate" for SS. At the same time the transportation
means represent, simultaneously, the final product in the space services
market, which strengthens their role in space activity even more.
According to consulting company's data, the activity in the world market of
space launches, which lowered during previous years, tends to increase the
number of launches since 2005 (2004 - 54 launches, 2005 - 55, 2006 - 66,
2007 - 67, 2008 - 71). A burst of inquiries on LEO satellites launches is
observed to come from ERS and "personal" communication.
It is remarkable that the number of launches has been growing on the
background of increasing AES functioning warranty period, which testifies
to the growth of space activity as a whole. Russia leads in the number of
SC launches. The total number of launches accomplished in 2008: Russia - 26
(18); USA - 15 (14); China - 10 (10); Europe - 6 (2), the number of
domestic launches is in brackets.
Such a ratio in launches of domestic and foreign SCs indicates that the
space activity of the USA and China is directed at internal technological
needs, whereas in Europe and Russia the commercial aspect of launches
prevails. However, whereas Europe in close interaction with the USA is
quite active in basic space activity directions, Russia is under threat of
turning into .
Nowadays Russia possesses a sufficient stock of launch vehicles (LV). The
following LVs are operated intensively: light-class "Cosmos-3M", "Rokot"
and medium-class LVs including modifications of "Soyuz", "Dnepr", "Proton"
and "Proton-M". "Cosmos-3M" and "Rokot" are conversion LVs. Production of
"Cosmos-3M" was terminated. The available ammunition of "Rokot" LVs allows
launches up to the year of 2015.
"Soyuz-2" LV represents a modernization of the well-known BR7À and is
actively applied for launching satellites. Together with the booster unit
"Fregat" it provides launching SC into mid- and high-altitude orbits. LV
"Soyuz" is reliably used in the manned program, and NASA confirmed its
intention to use it for delivering astronauts to ISS after termination of
"Shuttle". Modernization of LV ("Soyuz - ST" project) is realized.
LV "Dnepr" is per se RS-20 "Satana". Since 1998 this LV has performed 13
launches of more than 30 Russian and foreign satellites. Current stock of
LVs equals to 150 items.
As managers of believe, the Russian industries will be occupied with orders
on launches from Baikonur, Plesetsk and Kourou (French Guiana) cosmodromes.
Only part of these plans will be obviously carried out. The situation in
the world market of space launches can be characterized as aggressive from
the USA, Europe, India and China.
Since 2010 Europe terminates application of Russian launch vehicles "Dnepr"
and "Rokot" in favor of its own light-weight LV "Vega". The experts in
Europe consider the project of LV "Soyuz-ST" launching from the Guiana
Space Center as a possible temporary solution before starting exploitation
of their own rocket of average carrying capacity. European experts discuss
the question of modernizing LV Ariane-5, which, in the Ariane-5 MÅ version,
can deliver about 12 tons of payload to the geostationary polar orbit
(GPO).
India, using ÐSLV LV, has launched 30 AESs by now, 16 of which are foreign.
The LV GLSV-MkIII is being built now. Next decade the carriers of new
generation with increased carrying capacity are to enter the market: EELV
(USA), HIIB (Japan), (China).
SC development according to the criterion becomes a characteristic feature
of world rocket building for the market of launching services. First-stage
solid-fuel boosters and application of oxygen - hydrogen upper stages
(absent in Russia now) begin to spread. The Americans, Chinese and Japanese
follow the way of producing LVs of diameter up to 10 m, whereas Russian LVs
are limited to the size of 4.1 m.
As for the rocket building prospect in Russia, it looks rather
controversial. In 1995 the Government adopted the Decree < span>Angara",
which was defined as a highway of domestic launch means. In 2008 V.V.Putin
assigned primary importance to the "Angara" and "GLONASS" programs in
Russian space activity. The "Angara" family includes four types of LVs
(from light- up to heavy-weight classes). LVs are produced on the basis of
two unified rocket modules URM-1 and URÌ-2 with supposed future carrying
capacity from 1.5 to 24 tons on LEO. The given program is realized by
Khrunichev State Enterprise with wide cooperation. Flight tests of a light-
weight version of LV are planned in 2011.
The northernmost-in-the-world "Plesetsk" cosmodrome was chosen as a site
for LV launching. Simultaneously, "Svobodniy" cosmodrome, located in the
southeast of the country, was closed. In so doing, the idea was declared
that all Russian SCs would be launched from domestic territory by means of
LV "Angara". However the geographical position of the cosmodrome does not
allow launches with an existing route of manned flights with inclination of
51º. As for GSÎ, LV "Proton - M" is much more advantageous than LV "Angara-
5".
According to the experts' opinions, modifications of light-weight "Angara-
1.1" LV and medium-weight "Angara-1.2" LV will hardly find consumers
because of their low performance characteristics. Russian Ministry of
Defense has already expressed its negative attitude towards LV "Angara-
1.1". The FTP was accepted in 2007 that provides building of "Vostochniy"
cosmodrome.
At the beginning of 2009 concurrently with works on LV "Angara", declared
competition and initiated a sketch designing of a new generation medium-
class space rocket complex (SRC) of increased carrying capacity ("Rus'-M").
The first launch of the new LV is going to be in 2015.
According to the tactical and performance specification (ÒPS), the new-
generation SRC is designed for solving the problems in the interests of
federal departments of Russia - first of all, under the program of research
and exploration of the near-Earth space and, subsequently, of celestial
bodies by manned vehicles, as well as in the interests of international
cooperation and commercial customers.
Designers claim that at comparable (with LV "Angara-5") carrying capacity
(more than 20 tons) the new-generation SRC is distinguished by the
following:

- manned means are given the priority in fulfilling the stated
tasks;
- adaptation to "Vostochniy" cosmodrome that provides launching over
the routes of manned flights and to the geostationary orbit;
- the tandem launching scheme and oxygen-hydrogen engines;
- strict safety requirements;
- the prospect of producing LVs with carrying capacity of 50 and 100
tons.

(One should note that the carrying capacity of "Ares-1" carrier equals to
26 tons, and that of "Ares-5" carrier, designed for the Moon and Mars
missions, is 180 tons).
In 2009 information appeared that the Government is going to fund the
production of a new light-weight-class carrier "Soyuz-1" with launching in
2011, which will provide delivery of payload of mass up to 4.5 tons to LEO
orbits.
Thus, two series of launch vehicles are simultaneously produced in Russia,
i.e. "Angara" and "Soyuz" families. Meanwhile, in the USA the issue is
widely discussed of choosing the LV according to the criterion and
manufacturing only one of four types of heavy-weight launch vehicles for
the manned program.
As a consequence we can cite S.B.Ivanov's statement: <<>Angara> rockets is
a major trump in demonstration of a leading space power's position, and
further delay in construction of launch complex threatens to show
inefficiency of governmental management of the largest project. The rocket
in a light- and heavy-weight version must be launched in 2011>.

3. Space research

Space investigations with the means located directly in space are the
locomotive of the whole space activity. New knowledge about the Earth
acquired from space, knowledge about Space and Universe enable the Mankind
to realize their position in the World and realize their own responsibility
for arrangement of life on the Earth. Exploitative approach towards space
activity and underestimation of conducted research are dangerous on global
scale.

Briefly on past events in space research
Even in 1958 the flights of the first satellites gave new information about
physical parameters of the Earth and near-Earth space. The first data on
the Moon, Mars, and Venus were obtained during the flights of Soviet
automatic interplanetary stations (AIS) in 1959, 1961 and 1971,
respectively. After this, information from the American ÀISs began to come.
The boom of space research coincided with the sixties and seventies of the
last century, when the "storm" of the Moon, Mars and Venus began. The
Soviet Union alone launched 44 ÀISs to the Moon, 18 - to Mars, 28 - to
Venus. Though less than 50% of launches succeeded, the effectiveness of
these missions was rather high. The obtained information is still being
processed.
On March 2, 1972, the interstellar envoy of mankind - American SC "Pioneer-
10" - set forth to novel depths of the Universe. Being today in working
condition, this vehicle has left Solar system's boundaries and is moving
now towards the Aldebaran star in the Taurus constellation.
In subsequent years the research SCs of the USA, Russia, and Europe
visited various areas of the Solar system. In the eighties the Soviet Union
launched two ÀISs toward Venus and one to Mars. In 1996 the Russian
research AES "Interball-2" was put into orbit.
Considerable revival in space exploration is observed at the beginning of
the 21st century. The scope of work admires with its immensity. Research
SCs of all leading space powers stay in space permanently. The objects for
research are the following: the Earth and near-Earth space; the Sun, the
Moon and planets of the Solar system; astrophysical processes, :
Flights to the Moon and Mars begin to hold a principal position in space
research. Other programs are intensified as well. In January 2006 one of
the most fascinating missions in astronautics history began and is still
under way - the interplanetary probe "New Horizons" set forth to flight
with the task of studying Pluto and its satellite Haron:

3.1. The Earth and near-Earth Space
Space means are quite efficient in studies of the Earth and near-Earth
Space. Earth remote sensing (ERS) SCs and techniques are used for these
purposes allowing integrated solution of research and monitoring problems
within a wide spectrum of tasks.
Extensive and complex investigations of the Ocean and acquiring the data on
terrestrial gravitational field and geoid have been extensively carried out
jointly by the USA and Åuropean Space Agency (ESA) since the eighties.
SC "Envisat" (ÅSA, USA) has been functioning since 2002 with the task of
acquiring the data on parameters of the atmosphere, surface of continents
and oceans, ice cover, as well as for updating the geoid in the ocean.
Satellites GRAE (Germany, USA-2002), Topex-Poseidon, JASON-1, JASON-2 (USA,
France) serve the same purpose. "Jason-2" satellite, launched in 2008,
composed a full map of the World Ocean surface for estimating and
forecasting the climate changes and formation of stormy winds. The European
Union countries and the USA start works on designing JASON-3 with launching
in 2013.
In 2009 within the framework of the European program "Earth Explorer" GOCE,
SMOS, Cryosat 2 satellites were launched for studying the gravitational
field and stationary circulation of the ocean, salinity of ocean water and
soil humidity. GOSE satellite, put into orbit of about 250 km, is equipped
with a device capable of recording accelerations of 10-13 g.
Indian satellites "Oceansat" are also functioning with the purpose of
monitoring the oceanic processes.
In the Soviet Union studies in the field of oceanology and geodesy were
carried out separately with SC launches in 1988 and 1965, respectively, and
were terminated at the end of the last century. Investigations in this
direction are not carried out in Russia today.
It is planned to start data acquisition on the Earth geoid at the beginning
of the next decade with SC GEO-IK, whose instrument composition does not
allow solving the tasks at the level of foreign analogues. The
oceanographic satellite "Ìåteor-M" No.3 is also supposed to be launched but
only after launching of satellites "Ìåteor-M" No.1 and No.2.

3.2. Solar system
In performing space investigations of the Solar system, the ambitions
regarding the Moon exploration were declared by the USA, ÅSA, Japan, China,
and India. The prime aims of these investigations are the magnetic and
gravitational fields of the